14.1 Power and Authority – Sociology - University of ...

If traditional authority derives from custom and tradition, rational-legal authority derives from law and is based on a belief in the legitimacy of a society's ... Skiptocontent LearningObjectives Definepowerandthethreetypesofauthority. ListWeber’sthreetypesofauthority. Explainwhycharismaticauthoritymaybeunstableinthelongrun. Politicsreferstothedistributionandexerciseofpowerwithinasociety,andpolityreferstothepoliticalinstitutionthroughwhichpowerisdistributedandexercised.Inanysociety,decisionsmustbemaderegardingtheallocationofresourcesandothermatters.Exceptperhapsinthesimplestsocieties,specificpeopleandoftenspecificorganizationsmakethesedecisions.Dependingonthesociety,theysometimesmakethesedecisionssolelytobenefitthemselvesandothertimesmakethesedecisionstobenefitthesocietyasawhole.Regardlessofwhobenefits,acentralpointisthis:someindividualsandgroupshavemorepowerthanothers.Becausepowerissoessentialtoanunderstandingofpolitics,webeginourdiscussionofpoliticswithadiscussionofpower. Powerreferstotheabilitytohaveone’swillcarriedoutdespitetheresistanceofothers.Mostofushaveseenastrikingexampleofrawpowerwhenwearedrivingacarandseeapolicecarinourrearviewmirror.Atthatparticularmoment,thedriverofthatcarhasenormouspoweroverus.Wemakesurewestrictlyobeythespeedlimitandallotherdrivingrules.If,alas,thepolicecar’slightsareflashing,westopthecar,asotherwisewemaybeinforevenbiggertrouble.Whentheofficerapproachesourcar,weordinarilytrytobeaspoliteaspossibleandpraywedonotgetaticket.Whenyouwere16andyourparentstoldyoutobehomebymidnightorelse,yourarrivalhomebythiscurfewagainillustratedtheuseofpower,inthiscaseparentalpower.Ifachildinmiddleschoolgivesherlunchtoabullywhothreatensher,thatagainisanexampleoftheuseofpower,or,inthiscase,themisuseofpower. Theseareallvividexamplesofpower,butthepowerthatsocialscientistsstudyisbothgranderand,often,moreinvisible(Wrong,1996).Muchofitoccursbehindthescenes,andscholarscontinuetodebatewhoiswieldingitandforwhosebenefittheywieldit.ManyyearsagoMaxWeber(1921/1978),oneofthefoundersofsociologydiscussedinearlierchapters,distinguishedlegitimateauthorityasaspecialtypeofpower.Legitimateauthority(sometimesjustcalledauthority),Webersaid,ispowerwhoseuseisconsideredjustandappropriatebythoseoverwhomthepowerisexercised.Inshort,ifasocietyapprovesoftheexerciseofpowerinaparticularway,thenthatpowerisalsolegitimateauthority.Theexampleofthepolicecarinourrearviewmirrorsisanexampleoflegitimateauthority. Weber’skeeninsightlayindistinguishingdifferenttypesoflegitimateauthoritythatcharacterizedifferenttypesofsocieties,especiallyastheyevolvefromsimpletomorecomplexsocieties.Hecalledthesethreetypestraditionalauthority,rational-legalauthority,andcharismaticauthority.Weturntothesenow. TraditionalAuthority Asthenameimplies,traditionalauthorityispowerthatisrootedintraditional,orlong-standing,beliefsandpracticesofasociety.Itexistsandisassignedtoparticularindividualsbecauseofthatsociety’scustomsandtraditions.Individualsenjoytraditionalauthorityforatleastoneoftworeasons.Thefirstisinheritance,ascertainindividualsaregrantedtraditionalauthoritybecausetheyarethechildrenorotherrelativesofpeoplewhoalreadyexercisetraditionalauthority.Thesecondreasonindividualsenjoytraditionalauthorityismorereligious:theirsocietiesbelievetheyareanointedbyGodorthegods,dependingonthesociety’sreligiousbeliefs,toleadtheirsociety.Traditionalauthorityiscommoninmanypreindustrialsocieties,wheretraditionandcustomaresoimportant,butalsoinmoremodernmonarchies(discussedshortly),whereaking,queen,orprinceenjoyspowerbecausesheorhecomesfromaroyalfamily. Traditionalauthorityisgrantedtoindividualsregardlessoftheirqualifications.Theydonothavetopossessanyspecialskillstoreceiveandwieldtheirauthority,astheirclaimtoitisbasedsolelyontheirbloodlineorsupposeddivinedesignation.Anindividualgrantedtraditionalauthoritycanbeintelligentorstupid,fairorarbitrary,andexcitingorboringbutreceivestheauthorityjustthesamebecauseofcustomandtradition.Asnotallindividualsgrantedtraditionalauthorityareparticularlywellqualifiedtouseit,societiesgovernedbytraditionalauthoritysometimesfindthatindividualsbestoweditarenotalwaysuptothejob. Rational-LegalAuthority Iftraditionalauthorityderivesfromcustomandtradition,rational-legalauthorityderivesfromlawandisbasedonabeliefinthelegitimacyofasociety’slawsandrulesandintherightofleaderstoactundertheserulestomakedecisionsandsetpolicy.Thisformofauthorityisahallmarkofmoderndemocracies,wherepowerisgiventopeopleelectedbyvoters,andtherulesforwieldingthatpowerareusuallysetforthinaconstitution,acharter,oranotherwrittendocument.Whereastraditionalauthorityresidesinanindividualbecauseofinheritanceordivinedesignation,rational-legalauthorityresidesintheofficethatanindividualfills,notintheindividualperse.TheauthorityofthepresidentoftheUnitedStatesthusresidesintheofficeofthepresidency,notintheindividualwhohappenstobepresident.Whenthatindividualleavesoffice,authoritytransferstothenextpresident.Thistransferisusuallysmoothandstable,andoneofthemarvelsofdemocracyisthatofficeholdersarereplacedinelectionswithoutrevolutionshavingtobenecessary.Wemightnothavevotedforthepersonwhowinsthepresidency,butweacceptthatperson’sauthorityasourpresidentwhenhe(sofarithasalwaysbeena“he”)assumesoffice. Rational-legalauthorityhelpsensureanorderlytransferofpowerinatimeofcrisis.WhenJohnF.Kennedywasassassinatedin1963,VicePresidentLyndonJohnsonwasimmediatelysworninasthenextpresident.WhenRichardNixonresignedhisofficeindisgracein1974becauseofhisinvolvementintheWatergatescandal,VicePresidentGeraldFord(whohimselfhadbecomevicepresidentafterSpiroAgnewresignedbecauseoffinancialcorruption)becamepresident.BecausetheU.S.Constitutionprovidedforthetransferofpowerwhenthepresidencywasvacant,andbecauseU.S.leadersandmembersofthepublicaccepttheauthorityoftheConstitutionontheseandsomanyothermatters,thetransferofpowerin1963and1974wassmoothandorderly. CharismaticAuthority Charismaticauthoritystemsfromanindividual’sextraordinarypersonalqualitiesandfromthatindividual’sholdoverfollowersbecauseofthesequalities.Suchcharismaticindividualsmayexerciseauthorityoverawholesocietyoronlyaspecificgroupwithinalargersociety.Theycanexerciseauthorityforgoodandforbad,asthisbrieflistofcharismaticleadersindicates:JoanofArc,AdolfHitler,MahatmaGandhi,MartinLutherKingJr.,JesusChrist,Muhammad,andBuddha.Eachoftheseindividualshadextraordinarypersonalqualitiesthatledtheirfollowerstoadmirethemandtofollowtheirordersorrequestsforaction. MuchofDr.MartinLutherKingJr.’sappealasacivilrightsleaderstemmedfromhisextraordinaryspeakingskillsandotherpersonalqualitiesthataccountedforhischarismaticauthority. U.S.LibraryofCongress–publicdomain. Charismaticauthoritycanresideinapersonwhocametoapositionofleadershipbecauseoftraditionalorrational-legalauthority.Overthecenturies,severalkingsandqueensofEnglandandotherEuropeannationswerecharismaticindividualsaswell(whilesomewerefarfromcharismatic).AfewU.S.presidents—Washington,Lincoln,bothRoosevelts,Kennedy,Reagan,and,forallhisfaults,evenClinton—alsowerecharismatic,andmuchoftheirpopularitystemmedfromvariouspersonalqualitiesthatattractedthepublicandsometimeseventhepress.RonaldReagan,forexample,wasoftencalled“theTeflonpresident,”becausehewassolovedbymuchofthepublicthataccusationsofineptitudeormalfeasancedidnotsticktohim(Lanoue,1988). Weberemphasizedthatcharismaticauthorityinitspureform(i.e.,whenauthorityresidesinsomeonesolelybecauseoftheperson’scharismaandnotbecausethepersonalsohastraditionalorrational-legalauthority)islessstablethantraditionalauthorityorrational-legalauthority.Thereasonforthisissimple:oncecharismaticleadersdie,theirauthoritydiesaswell.Althoughacharismaticleader’sexamplemaycontinuetoinspirepeoplelongaftertheleaderdies,itisdifficultforanotherleadertocomealongandcommandpeople’sdevotionasintensely.Afterthedeathsofallthecharismaticleadersnamedintheprecedingparagraph,noonecameclosetoreplacingthemintheheartsandmindsoftheirfollowers. Becausecharismaticleadersrecognizethattheireventualdeathmaywellunderminethenationorcausetheyrepresent,theyoftendesignateareplacementleader,whotheyhopewillalsohavecharismaticqualities.Thisnewleadermaybeagrownchildofthecharismaticleaderorsomeoneelsetheleaderknowsandtrusts.Thedanger,ofcourse,isthatanynewleaderswilllacksufficientcharismatohavetheirauthorityacceptedbythefollowersoftheoriginalcharismaticleader.Forthisreason,Weberrecognizedthatcharismaticauthorityultimatelybecomesmorestablewhenitisevolvesintotraditionalorrational-legalauthority.Transformationintotraditionalauthoritycanhappenwhencharismaticleaders’authoritybecomesacceptedasresidingintheirbloodlines,sothattheirauthoritypassestotheirchildrenandthentotheirgrandchildren.Transformationintorational-legalauthorityoccurswhenasocietyruledbyacharismaticleaderdevelopstherulesandbureaucraticstructuresthatweassociatewithagovernment.Weberusedthetermroutinizationofcharismatorefertothetransformationofcharismaticauthorityineitheroftheseways. KeyTakeaways Powerreferstotheabilitytohaveone’swillcarriedoutdespitetheresistanceofothers. AccordingtoMaxWeber,thethreetypesoflegitimateauthorityaretraditional,rational-legal,andcharismatic. Charismaticauthorityisrelativelyunstablebecausetheauthorityheldbyacharismaticleadermaynoteasilyextendtoanyoneelseaftertheleaderdies. ForYourReview Thinkofsomeone,eitherapersonyouhaveknownoranationalorhistoricalfigure,whomyouregardasacharismaticleader.Whatisitaboutthispersonthatmakesherorhimcharismatic? Whyisrational-legalauthoritygenerallymorestablethancharismaticauthority? References Lanoue,D.J.(1988).FromCamelottotheteflonpresident:Economicsandpresidentialpopularaitysince1960.NewYork,NY:GreenwoodPress. Weber,M.(1978).Economyandsociety:Anoutlineofinterpretivesociology(G.Roth&C.Wittich,Eds.).Berkeley:UniversityofCaliforniaPress.(Originalworkpublished1921). Wrong,D.H.(1996).Power:Itsforms,bases,anduses.NewBrunswick,NJ:Transaction. 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