Child development - Wikipedia

It has been defined as ages 10 to 19 by the World Health Organization. ... In the course of development, the individual human progresses from dependency to ... Childdevelopment FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia Jumptonavigation Jumptosearch Developmentalchangeinchildren Ayoungboyplayinginasquattingposition Childdevelopmentinvolvesthebiological,psychologicalandemotionalchangesthatoccurinhumanbeingsbetweenbirthandtheconclusionofadolescence.Childhoodisdividedinto3stagesoflifewhichincludeearlychildhood,middlechildhood,andlatechildhood(preadolescence).[1]Earlychildhoodtypicallyrangesfrominfancytotheageof6yearsold.Duringthisperiod,developmentissignificant,asmanyoflife'smilestoneshappenduringthistimeperiodsuchasfirstwords,learningtocrawl,andlearningtowalk.Thereisspeculationthatmiddlechildhood/preadolescenceorages6–12[2]arethemostcrucialyearsofachild'slife.Adolescenceisthestageoflifethattypicallystartsaroundthemajoronsetofpuberty,withmarkerssuchasmenarcheandspermarche,typicallyoccurringat12-13yearsofage.[3]Ithasbeendefinedasages10to19bytheWorldHealthOrganization.[4]Inthecourseofdevelopment,theindividualhumanprogressesfromdependencytoincreasingautonomy.Itisacontinuousprocesswithapredictablesequence,yethasauniquecourseforeverychild.Itdoesnotprogressatthesamerateandeachstageisaffectedbytheprecedingdevelopmentalexperiences.Becausegeneticfactorsandeventsduringprenatallifemaystronglyinfluencedevelopmentalchanges,geneticsandprenataldevelopmentusuallyformapartofthestudyofchilddevelopment.Relatedtermsincludedevelopmentalpsychology,referringtodevelopmentthroughoutthelifespan,andpediatrics,thebranchofmedicinerelatingtothecareofchildren. Developmentalchangemayoccurasaresultofgeneticallycontrolledprocessesknownasmaturation,[5]orasaresultofenvironmentalfactorsandlearning,butmostcommonlyinvolvesaninteractionbetweenthetwo.Itmayalsooccurasaresultofhumannatureandofhumanabilitytolearnfromtheenvironment. Therearevariousdefinitionsofperiodsinachild'sdevelopment,sinceeachperiodisacontinuumwithindividualdifferencesregardingstartingandending.Someage-relateddevelopmentperiodsandexamplesofdefinedintervalsinclude:newborn(ages0–4weeks);infant(ages1month–1year);toddler(ages1-2years);preschooler(ages2-6years);school-agedchild(ages6–12years);adolescent(ages12–18years).[6] Promotingchilddevelopmentthroughparentaltraining,amongotherfactors,promotesexcellentratesofchilddevelopment.[7] Parentsplayalargeroleinachild'sactivities,socialization,anddevelopment.Havingmultipleparentscanaddstabilitytoachild'slifeandthereforeencouragehealthydevelopment.[8]Anotherinfluentialfactorinchildren'sdevelopmentisthequalityoftheircare.Child-careprogramsmaybebeneficialforchildhooddevelopmentsuchaslearningcapabilitiesandsocialskills.[9] Theoptimaldevelopmentofchildrenisconsideredvitaltosocietyanditisimportanttounderstandthesocial,cognitive,emotional,andeducationaldevelopmentofchildren.Increasedresearchandinterestinthisfieldhasresultedinnewtheoriesandstrategies,withspecificregardtopracticethatpromotesdevelopmentwithintheschoolsystem.Sometheoriesseektodescribeasequenceofstatesthatcomposechilddevelopment. Contents 1Theories 1.1Ecologicalsystems 1.2Piaget 1.2.1Stages 1.3Vygotsky 1.4Attachment 1.5ErikErikson 1.6Behavioral 1.7Other 2Continuityanddiscontinuity 2.1Mechanisms 2.2Asynchronousdevelopment 3Researchissuesandmethods 3.1Infantresearchmethods 3.2Ethicalconsiderations 4Milestones 5Aspects 5.1Physicalgrowth 5.1.1Speedandpattern 5.1.2Mechanismsofchange 5.1.3Individualvariationversusdisease 5.2Motor 5.2.1Definition 5.2.2Speedandpattern 5.2.3Mechanisms 5.2.4Individualdifferences 5.2.5Childrenwithdisabilities 5.2.6Populationdifferences 5.3Cognitive/intellectual 5.3.1Mechanisms 5.3.2Speedandpattern 5.3.3Individualdifferences 5.3.4Populationdifferences 5.4Social-emotional 5.4.1Factors 5.4.2Speedandpattern 5.4.3Mechanisms 5.4.4Populationdifferences 5.5Gender 5.6Race 5.7Languageandcommunication 5.7.1Mechanisms 5.7.2Components 5.7.3Milestones 5.7.4Sequentialskillinlearningtotalk 5.7.5Theories 5.7.6Language 5.8Individualdifferences 5.8.1Environmentalcauses 5.8.2Neurologicalcauses 6Riskfactors 6.1Postnataldepression 6.2Maternaldruguse 6.2.1Cocaine 6.2.2Other 6.3MalnutritionandUndernutrition 6.3.1Nutrients 6.4Socioeconomicstatus 6.5Parasites 6.6Poisoning 6.7Other 7Neglect 7.1Assessingandidentifying 7.1.1Developmentfocusedmethods 7.1.2Startingtheassessment 7.2Startingtheassessment 7.3Linkingtostimulation 7.4Practicaltoolsformeasuring 7.5Interventionprogramsforaddressing 7.5.1Parentingprograms 8Seealso 9References 10Furtherreading 11Externallinks Theories[edit] Ecologicalsystems[edit] Mainarticle:Ecologicalsystemstheory Alsocalled"developmentincontext"or"humanecology"theory,ecologicalsystemstheory,originallyformulatedbyUrieBronfenbrennerspecifiesfourtypesofnestedenvironmentalsystems,withbi-directionalinfluenceswithinandbetweenthesystems.Thefoursystemsaremicrosystem,mesosystem,exosystem,andmacrosystem.Eachsystemcontainsroles,norms,andrulesthatcanpowerfullyshapedevelopment.Sinceitspublicationin1979,Bronfenbrenner'smajorstatementofthistheory,TheEcologyofHumanDevelopment[10]hashadwidespreadinfluenceonthewaypsychologistsandothersapproachthestudyofhumanbeingsandtheirenvironments.Asaresultofthisinfluentialconceptualizationofdevelopment,theseenvironments—fromthefamilytoeconomicandpoliticalstructures—havecometobeviewedaspartofthelifecoursefromchildhoodthroughadulthood.[11] Piaget[edit] Mainarticles:JeanPiagetandPiaget'stheoryofcognitivedevelopment JeanPiagetwasaSwissscholarwhobeganhisstudiesinintellectualdevelopmentinthe1920s.Piaget'sfirstinterestswerethosethatdealtwiththewaysinwhichanimalsadapttotheirenvironmentsandhisfirstscientificarticleaboutthissubjectwaspublishedwhenhewas10yearsold.ThiseventuallyledhimtopursueaPh.D.inzoology,whichthenledhimtohissecondinterestinepistemology.[12]Epistemologybranchesofffromphilosophyanddealswiththeoriginofknowledge.PiagetbelievedtheoriginofknowledgecamefromPsychology,sohetravelledtoParisandbeganworkingonthefirst"standardizedintelligencetest"atAlfredBinetlaboratories;thisinfluencedhiscareergreatly.Ashecarriedoutthisintelligencetestinghebegandevelopingaprofoundinterestinthewaychildren'sintellectualismworks.Asaresult,hedevelopedhisownlaboratoryandspentyearsrecordingchildren'sintellectualgrowthandattemptedtofindouthowchildrendevelopthroughvariousstagesofthinking.ThisledPiagettodevelopfourimportantstagesofcognitivedevelopment:sensorimotorstage(birthtoage2),preoperationalstage(age2to7),concrete-operationalstage(ages7to12),andformal-operationalstage(ages11to12,andthereafter).[12]Piagetconcludedthatadaptiontoanenvironment(behaviour)ismanagedthroughschemesandadaptionoccursthroughassimilationandaccommodation.[2] Stages[edit] Mainarticle:Childdevelopmentstages Sensorymotor:(birthtoaboutage2) ThisisthefirststageinPiaget'stheory,whereinfantshavethefollowingbasicsenses:vision,hearing,andmotorskills.Inthisstage,knowledgeoftheworldislimitedbutisconstantlydevelopingduetothechild'sexperiencesandinteractions.[13]AccordingtoPiaget,whenaninfantreachesabout7–9monthsofagetheybegintodevelopwhathecalledobjectpermanence,thismeansthechildnowhastheabilitytounderstandthatobjectskeepexistingevenwhentheycannotbeseen.Anexampleofthiswouldbehidingthechild'sfavoritetoyunderablanket,althoughthechildcannotphysicallyseeittheystillknowtolookundertheblanket. Preoperational:(beginsaboutthetimethechildstartstotalk,aboutage2) Duringthisstageofdevelopment,youngchildrenbeginanalyzingtheirenvironmentusingmentalsymbols.Thesesymbolsoftenincludewordsandimagesandthechildwillbegintoapplythesevarioussymbolsintheireverydaylivesastheycomeacrossdifferentobjects,events,andsituations.[12]However,Piaget'smainfocusonthisstageandthereasonwhyhenamedit"preoperational"isbecausechildrenatthispointarenotabletoapplyspecificcognitiveoperations,suchasmentalmath.Inadditiontosymbolism,childrenstarttoengageinpretendplayinwhichtheypretendtobepeopletheyarenot(teachers,superheroes).Inaddition,theysometimesusedifferentpropstomakethispretendplaymorereal.[12]Somedeficienciesinthisstageofdevelopmentarethatchildrenwhoareabout3–4yearsoldoftendisplaywhatiscalledegocentrism,whichmeansthechildisnotabletoseesomeoneelse'spointofview,theyfeelasifeveryotherpersonisexperiencingthesameeventsandfeelingsthattheyareexperiencing.However,atabout7,thoughtprocessesofchildrenarenolongeregocentricandaremoreintuitive,meaningtheynowthinkaboutthewaysomethinglooksinsteadofrationalthinking.[12] Concrete:(aboutfirstgradetoearlyadolescence) Duringthisstage,childrenbetweentheageof7and11useappropriatelogictodevelopcognitiveoperationsandbeginapplyingthisnewthinkingtodifferenteventstheymayencounter.[12]Childreninthisstageincorporateinductivereasoning,whichinvolvesdrawingconclusionsfromotherobservationsinordertomakeageneralization.[14]Unlikethepreoperationalstage,childrencannowchangeandrearrangementalimagesandsymbolstoformalogicalthought,anexampleofthisisreversibilityinwhichthechildnowhastheabilitytoreverseanactionjustbydoingtheopposite.[12] Formaloperations:(aboutearlyadolescencetomid/lateadolescence) ThefinalstageofPiaget'scognitivedevelopmentdefinesachildasnowhavingtheabilityto"thinkmorerationallyandsystematicallyaboutabstractconceptsandhypotheticalevents".[12]Somepositiveaspectsduringthistimeisthatchildoradolescentbeginsformingtheiridentityandbeginunderstandingwhypeoplebehavethewaytheybehave.However,therearealsosomenegativeaspectswhichincludethechildoradolescentdevelopingsomeegocentricthoughtswhichincludetheimaginaryaudienceandthepersonalfable.[12]Animaginaryaudienceiswhenanadolescentfeelsthattheworldisjustasconcernedandjudgementalofanythingtheadolescentdoesastheyare;anadolescentmayfeelasiftheyare"onstage"andeveryoneisacriticandtheyaretheonesbeingcritiqued.[12]Apersonalfableiswhentheadolescentfeelsthatheorsheisauniquepersonandeverythingtheydoisunique.Theyfeelasiftheyaretheonlyonesthathaveeverexperiencedwhattheyareexperiencingandthattheyareinvincibleandnothingbadwillhappentothem,itwillonlyhappentoothers.[12] Vygotsky[edit] Mainarticles:LevVygotskyandCultural-historicalpsychology VygotskywasaRussiantheorist,whoproposedthesocioculturaltheory.Duringthe1920s–1930swhilePiagetwasdevelopinghisowntheory,Vygotskywasanactivescholarandatthattimehistheorywassaidtobe"recent"becauseitwastranslatedoutofRussianlanguageandbeganinfluencingWesternthinking.[12]Hepositedthatchildrenlearnthroughhands-onexperience,asPiagetsuggested.However,unlikePiaget,heclaimedthattimelyandsensitiveinterventionbyadultswhenachildisontheedgeoflearninganewtask(calledthezoneofproximaldevelopment)couldhelpchildrenlearnnewtasks.Thistechniqueiscalled"scaffolding,"becauseitbuildsuponknowledgechildrenalreadyhavewithnewknowledgethatadultscanhelpthechildlearn.[15]Anexampleofthismightbewhenaparent"helps"aninfantclaporrollherhandstothepat-a-cakerhyme,untilshecanclapandrollherhandsherself.[16][17] Vygotskywasstronglyfocusedontheroleofcultureindeterminingthechild'spatternofdevelopment.[15]Hearguedthat"Everyfunctioninthechild'sculturaldevelopmentappearstwice:first,onthesociallevel,andlater,ontheindividuallevel;first,betweenpeople(interpsychological)andtheninsidethechild(intrapsychological).Thisappliesequallytovoluntaryattention,tologicalmemory,andtotheformationofconcepts.Allthehigherfunctionsoriginateasactualrelationshipsbetweenindividuals."[15] Vygotskyfeltthatdevelopmentwasaprocessandsawperiodsofcrisisinchilddevelopmentduringwhichtherewasaqualitativetransformationinthechild'smentalfunctioning.[18] Attachment[edit] Mainarticle:Attachmenttheory Attachmenttheory,originatingintheworkofJohnBowlbyanddevelopedbyMaryAinsworth,isapsychological,evolutionaryandethologicaltheorythatprovidesadescriptiveandexplanatoryframeworkforunderstandinginterpersonalrelationshipsbetweenhumanbeings.Bowlby'sobservationsofcloseattachmentsledhimtobelievethatcloseemotionalbondsor"attachments"betweenaninfantandtheirprimarycaregiverisanimportantrequirementthatisnecessarytoform"normalsocialandemotionaldevelopment".[12] ErikErikson[edit] Mainarticles:ErikEriksonandPsychosocialdevelopment Erikson,afollowerofFreud's,synthesizedbothFreud'sandhisowntheoriestocreatewhatisknownasthe"psychosocial"stagesofhumandevelopment,whichspanfrombirthtodeath,andfocuseson"tasks"ateachstagethatmustbeaccomplishedtosuccessfullynavigatelife'schallenges.[19] Erikson'seightstagesconsistofthefollowing:[20] Trustvs.mistrust(infant) Autonomyvs.shame(toddlerhood) Initiativevs.guilt(preschooler) Industryvs.inferiority(youngadolescent) Identityvs.roleconfusion(adolescent) Intimacyvs.isolation(youngadulthood) Generativityvs.stagnation(middleadulthood) Egointegrityvs.despair(oldage) Behavioral[edit] Mainarticle:Behavioranalysisofchilddevelopment JohnB.Watson'sbehaviorismtheoryformsthefoundationofthebehavioralmodelofdevelopment1925.[21]Watsonwasabletoexplaintheaspectsofhumanpsychologythroughtheprocessofclassicalconditioning.Withthisprocess,Watsonbelievedthatallindividualdifferencesinbehaviorwereduetodifferentlearningexperiences.[22]Hewroteextensivelyonchilddevelopmentandconductedresearch(seeLittleAlbertexperiment).Thisexperimenthadshownthatphobiacouldbecreatedbyclassicalconditioning.WatsonwasinstrumentalinthemodificationofWilliamJames'streamofconsciousnessapproachtoconstructastreamofbehaviortheory.[23]Watsonalsohelpedbringanaturalscienceperspectivetochildpsychologybyintroducingobjectiveresearchmethodsbasedonobservableandmeasurablebehavior.[23]FollowingWatson'slead,B.F.Skinnerfurtherextendedthismodeltocoveroperantconditioningandverbalbehavior.[24]Skinnerusedtheoperantchamber,orSkinnerbox,toobservethebehaviorofsmallorganismsinacontrolledsituationandprovedthatorganisms'behaviorsareinfluencedbytheenvironment.Furthermore,heusedreinforcementandpunishmenttoshapeindesiredbehavior. Other[edit] Inaccordancewithhisviewthatthesexualdriveisabasichumanmotivation,[25]SigmundFreuddevelopedapsychosexualtheoryofhumandevelopmentfrominfancyonward,dividedintofivestages.[26]Eachstagecenteredaroundthegratificationofthelibidowithinaparticulararea,orerogenouszone,ofthebody.[27]Healsoarguedthatashumansdevelop,theybecomefixatedondifferentandspecificobjectsthroughtheirstagesofdevelopment.[28][29]Eachstagecontainsconflictwhichrequiresresolutiontoenablethechildtodevelop.[30] Theuseofdynamicalsystemstheoryasaframeworkfortheconsiderationofdevelopmentbeganintheearly1990sandhascontinuedintothepresentcentury.[31]Dynamicsystemstheorystressesnonlinearconnections(e.g.,betweenearlierandlatersocialassertiveness)andthecapacityofasystemtoreorganizeasaphaseshiftthatisstage-likeinnature.Anotherusefulconceptfordevelopmentalistsistheattractorstate,acondition(suchasteethingorstrangeranxiety)thathelpstodetermineapparentlyunrelatedbehaviorsaswellasrelatedones.[32]Dynamicsystemstheoryhasbeenappliedextensivelytothestudyofmotordevelopment;thetheoryalsohasstrongassociationswithsomeofBowlby'sviewsaboutattachmentsystems.Dynamicsystemstheoryalsorelatestotheconceptofthetransactionalprocess,[33]amutuallyinteractiveprocessinwhichchildrenandparentssimultaneouslyinfluenceeachother,producingdevelopmentalchangeinbothovertime.[34] The"coreknowledgeperspective"isanevolutionarytheoryinchilddevelopmentthatproposes"infantsbeginlifewithinnate,special-purposeknowledgesystemsreferredtoascoredomainsofthought"[35]Therearefivecoredomainsofthought,eachofwhichiscrucialforsurvival,whichsimultaneouslyprepareustodevelopkeyaspectsofearlycognition;theyare:physical,numerical,linguistic,psychological,andbiological.[35] Continuityanddiscontinuity[edit] Althoughtheidentificationofdevelopmentalmilestonesisofinteresttoresearchersandtochildren'scaregivers,manyaspectsofdevelopmentalchangearecontinuousanddonotdisplaynoticeablemilestonesofchange.[36]Continuousdevelopmentalchanges,likegrowthinstature,involvefairlygradualandpredictableprogresstowardadultcharacteristics.Whendevelopmentalchangeisdiscontinuous,however,researchersmayidentifynotonlymilestonesofdevelopment,butrelatedageperiodsoftencalledstages.Astageisaperiodoftime,oftenassociatedwithaknownchronologicalagerange,duringwhichabehaviororphysicalcharacteristicisqualitativelydifferentfromwhatitisatotherages.Whenanageperiodisreferredtoasastage,thetermimpliesnotonlythisqualitativedifference,butalsoapredictablesequenceofdevelopmentalevents,suchthateachstageisbothprecededandfollowedbyspecificotherperiodsassociatedwithcharacteristicbehavioralorphysicalqualities.[37] Stagesofdevelopmentmayoverlaporbeassociatedwithspecificotheraspectsofdevelopment,suchasspeechormovement.Evenwithinaparticulardevelopmentalarea,transitionintoastagemaynotmeanthatthepreviousstageiscompletelyfinished.Forexample,inErikson'sdiscussionofstagesofpersonality,thistheoristsuggeststhatalifetimeisspentinreworkingissuesthatwereoriginallycharacteristicofachildhoodstage.[38]Similarly,thetheoristofcognitivedevelopment,Piaget,describedsituationsinwhichchildrencouldsolveonetypeofproblemusingmaturethinkingskills,butcouldnotaccomplishthisforlessfamiliarproblems,aphenomenonhecalledhorizontaldecalage.[39] Mechanisms[edit] Girlplayinginaplayground Seealso:Natureversusnurture Althoughdevelopmentalchangerunsparallelwithchronologicalage,[40]ageitselfcannotcausedevelopment.[40]Thebasicmechanismsorcausesofdevelopmentalchangearegeneticfactorsandenvironmentalfactors.[41]Geneticfactorsareresponsibleforcellularchangeslikeoverallgrowth,changesinproportionofbodyandbrainparts,[42]andthematurationofaspectsoffunctionsuchasvisionanddietaryneeds.[40]Becausegenescanbe"turnedoff"and"turnedon",[40]theindividual'sinitialgenotypemaychangeinfunctionovertime,givingrisetofurtherdevelopmentalchange.Environmentalfactorsaffectingdevelopmentmayincludebothdietanddiseaseexposure,aswellassocial,emotional,andcognitiveexperiences.[40]However,examinationofenvironmentalfactorsalsoshowsthatyounghumanbeingscansurvivewithinafairlybroadrangeofenvironmentalexperiences.[39] Ratherthanactingasindependentmechanisms,geneticandenvironmentalfactorsofteninteracttocausedevelopmentalchange.[40]Someaspectsofchilddevelopmentarenotablefortheirplasticity,ortheextenttowhichthedirectionofdevelopmentisguidedbyenvironmentalfactorsaswellasinitiatedbygeneticfactors.[40]Whenanaspectofdevelopmentisstronglyaffectedbyearlyexperience,itissaidtoshowahighdegreeofplasticity;whenthegeneticmake-upistheprimarycauseofdevelopment,plasticityissaidtobelow.[43]Plasticitymayinvolveguidancebyendogenousfactorslikehormonesaswellasbyexogenousfactorslikeinfection.[40]Childplayingwithbubbles Onekindofenvironmentalguidanceofdevelopmenthasbeendescribedasexperience-dependentplasticity,inwhichbehaviorisalteredasaresultoflearningfromtheenvironment.Plasticityofthistypecanoccurthroughoutthelifespanandmayinvolvemanykindsofbehavior,includingsomeemotionalreactions.[40]Asecondtypeofplasticity,experience-expectantplasticity,involvesthestrongeffectofspecificexperiencesduringlimitedsensitiveperiodsofdevelopment.[40]Forexample,thecoordinateduseofthetwoeyes,andtheexperienceofasinglethree-dimensionalimageratherthanthetwo-dimensionalimagescreatedbylightineacheye,dependonexperienceswithvisionduringthesecondhalfofthefirstyearoflife.[40]Experience-expectantplasticityworkstofine-tuneaspectsofdevelopmentthatcannotproceedtooptimumoutcomesasaresultofgeneticfactorsworkingalone.[44][45] Inadditiontotheexistenceofplasticityinsomeaspectsofdevelopment,genetic-environmentalcorrelationsmayfunctioninseveralwaystodeterminethematurecharacteristicsoftheindividual.Genetic-environmentalcorrelationsarecircumstancesinwhichgeneticfactorsmakecertainexperiencesmorelikelytooccur.[40]Forexample,inpassivegenetic-environmentalcorrelation,achildislikelytoexperienceaparticularenvironmentbecausehisorherparents'geneticmake-upmakesthemlikelytochooseorcreatesuchanenvironment.[40]Inevocativegenetic-environmentalcorrelation,thechild'sgeneticallycausedcharacteristicscauseotherpeopletorespondincertainways,providingadifferentenvironmentthanmightoccurforageneticallydifferentchild;[40]forinstance,achildwithDownsyndromemaybetreatedmoreprotectivelyandlesschallenginglythananon-Downchild.[40]Finally,anactivegenetic-environmentalcorrelationisoneinwhichthechildchoosesexperiencesthatinturnhavetheireffect;[40]forinstance,amuscular,activechildmaychooseafter-schoolsportsexperiencesthatcreateincreasedathleticskills,butperhapsprecludemusiclessons.Inallofthesecases,itbecomesdifficulttoknowwhetherchildcharacteristicswereshapedbygeneticfactors,byexperiences,orbyacombinationofthetwo.[46] Asynchronousdevelopment[edit] Asynchronousdevelopmentoccursincaseswhenachild'scognitive,physical,and/oremotionaldevelopmentoccuratdifferentrates.Asynchronousdevelopmentiscommonforgiftedchildrenwhentheircognitivedevelopmentoutpacestheirphysicaland/oremotionalmaturity,suchaswhenachildisacademicallyadvancedandskippingschoolgradelevelsyetstillcriesoverchildishmattersand/orstilllookshisorherage.Asynchronousdevelopmentpresentschallengesforschools,parents,siblings,peers,andthechildrenthemselves,suchasmakingithardforthechildtofitinorfrustratingadultswhohavebecomeaccustomedtothechild'sadvancementinotherareas.[47] Researchissuesandmethods[edit] Whatdevelops?Whatrelevantaspectsoftheindividualchangeoveraperiodoftime? Whataretherateandspeedofdevelopment? Whatarethemechanismsofdevelopment–whataspectsofexperienceandhereditycausedevelopmentalchange? Aretheretypicalindividualdifferencesintherelevantdevelopmentalchanges? Aretherepopulationdifferencesinthisaspectofdevelopment(forexample,differencesinthedevelopmentofboysandofgirls)? Empiricalresearchthatattemptstoanswerthesequestionsmayfollowanumberofpatterns.Initially,observationalresearchinnaturalisticconditionsmaybeneededtodevelopanarrativedescribinganddefininganaspectofdevelopmentalchange,suchaschangesinreflexreactionsinthefirstyear.[48]Thistypeofworkmaybefollowedbycorrelationalstudies,collectinginformationaboutchronologicalageandsometypeofdevelopmentsuchasvocabularygrowth;correlationalstatisticscanbeusedtostatechange.Suchstudiesexaminethecharacteristicsofchildrenatdifferentages.[49]Thesemethodsmayinvolvelongitudinalstudies,inwhichagroupofchildrenisre-examinedonanumberofoccasionsastheygetolder,orcross-sectionalstudies,inwhichgroupsofchildrenofdifferentagesaretestedonceandcomparedwitheachother,ortheremaybeacombinationoftheseapproaches.Somechilddevelopmentstudiesexaminetheeffectsofexperienceorhereditybycomparingcharacteristicsofdifferentgroupsofchildreninanecessarilynon-randomizeddesign.Otherstudiescanuserandomizeddesignstocompareoutcomesforgroupsofchildrenwhoreceivedifferentinterventionsoreducationaltreatments.[39] Infantresearchmethods[edit] Whenconductingpsychologicalresearchoninfantsandchildren,therearecertainkeyaspectsofinfantsthatneedtobeconsideredbeforeembarkingonresearch.[50]Fivekeychallengestoconductingresearchwithinfantsarethatinfantscannottalk,havealimitedbehavioralrepertoire,cannotfollowinstructions,haveashortattentionspan,anddeveloprapidly(somethodsneedtobeupdatedatdifferentagesanddevelopmentalstages).[50] High-amplitudesuckingtechnique(HAS)isonecommonwaytoexploreinfants'preferences.HASisappropriateforinfantsfromthetimethattheyarebornuntiltheyarefourmonthsoldsinceittakesadvantageofinfants'suckingreflex.[51]Whenthisisameasureofinterest,researcherswillcodeabaselinesuckingrateforeachbabybeforeexposingthemtotheitemofinterest.AcommonfindingofHASshowsarelaxed,naturalsuckingratewhenexposedtosomethingtheinfantisfamiliarwith,liketheirmother'svoice,comparedtoanincreasedsuckingratearoundnovelstimuli.[52] Thepreferential-lookingtechiquewasabreakthroughmadebyRobertL.Fantzin1961.[50]Inhisexperiments,hewouldshowtheinfantsinhisstudytwodifferentstimuli.Ifaninfantlooksatoneimagelongerthantheother,therearetwothingsthatcanbeinferred:theinfantcanseethattheyaretwodifferentimagesandthattheinfantisshowingpreferencetooneimageinsomecapacity.Dependingonthegoaloftheexperiment,infantsmayprefertolookatthenovelandmoreinterestingstimulusortheymaylookatthemorecomfortingandfamiliarimage.[53] Eyetrackingisastraightforwardwayoflookingatinfants'preferences.Oneexampleofeyetracking,usinganeyetrackingsoftware,itispossibletoseeifinfantsunderstandcommonlyusednounsbytrackingtheireyesaftertheyarecuedwiththetargetword.[54]Typicalpatternofhabituation Anotheruniquewaytostudyinfants'cognitionisthroughhabituation,whichistheprocessofrepeatedlyshowingastimulustoaninfantuntiltheygivenoresponse.[55]Then,wheninfantsarepresentedwithanovelstimulus,theyshowaresponse.Thisviolationofexpectationrevealspatternsofcognitionandperception.[55]Usingthisstudymethod,manydifferentcognitiveandperceptualideascanbestudied.Lookingtimeisacommonmeasureofhabituation.Lookingtimeisstudiedbyrecordinghowlonganinfantlooksatastimulusuntiltheyarehabituatedtothatstimulus.Then,researchersrecordifaninfantbecomesdishabituatedtoanovelstimulus.Thismethodcanbeusedtomeasurepreferencesinfants,includingaestheticpreferencesforcertaincolors.[56]Additionally,otherdiscriminatorytaskscanbestudied,includingauditorydiscriminationbetweendifferentmusicalexcerpts.[57] Anotherwaythatchildrenarestudiedisthroughbrainimagingtechnology.[58]OneexampleusedalotinchilddevelopmentstudiesisMagneticResonanceImaging(MRI).Thesemachinescanbeusedtotrackbrainactivity,growth,andconnectivityinchildren[58][59]Braindevelopmentcanbetrackedfromwhenachildisafetuswiththisnewtechnology.[59]Anothercommontypeofbrainimagingcanbecollectedwithelectroencephalography(EEG).[60]Thistechnologycanbeusedtodiagnoseseizuresandencephalopathy,butconsideringconceptualageoftheinfantisimportantforanalyzingtheresults.[60] Ethicalconsiderations[edit] Mostoftheethicalchallengesthatexistinstudieswithadultsexistwithinchildren.However,therearesomenotabledifferencesinethicalresearchthatshouldbeaddressedwhendesigningstudiesforchildren.[61][62]Animportantconsiderationisthatchildrenshouldgivetheirconsenttoparticipateinresearch.Becauseoftheinherentpowerstructureinmostresearchsettings,researchersmustconsiderstudydesignsthatprotectchildrenfromfeelingcoerced.Childrenarenotallowedtogiveconsent,soparentsmustgivetheirinformedconsentforchildrentoparticipateinresearch.[61]Childrencangivetheirassent,whichshouldbereliablycheckedbybothverbalandnonverbalcuesthroughouttheirparticipation.[61] Milestones[edit] Seealso:Childdevelopmentstages Milestonesarechangesinspecificphysicalandmentalabilities(suchaswalkingandunderstandinglanguage)thatmarktheendofonedevelopmentalperiodandthebeginningofanother.[63]Forstagetheories,milestonesindicateastagetransition.Studiesoftheaccomplishmentofmanydevelopmentaltaskshaveestablishedtypicalchronologicalagesassociatedwithdevelopmentalmilestones.However,thereisconsiderablevariationintheachievementofmilestones,evenbetweenchildrenwithdevelopmentaltrajectorieswithinthetypicalrange.Somemilestonesaremorevariablethanothers;forexample,receptivespeechindicatorsdonotshowmuchvariationamongchildrenwithtypicalhearing,butexpressivespeechmilestonescanbequitevariable.[64] Acommonconcerninchilddevelopmentisdevelopmentaldelayinvolvingadelayinanage-specificabilityforimportantdevelopmentalmilestones.Preventionofandearlyinterventionindevelopmentaldelayaresignificanttopicsinthestudyofchilddevelopment.[65]Developmentaldelaysshouldbediagnosedbycomparisonwithcharacteristicvariabilityofamilestone,notwithrespecttoaverageageatachievement.Anexampleofamilestonewouldbeeye-handcoordination,whichincludesachild'sincreasingabilitytomanipulateobjectsinacoordinatedmanner. Thereisaphenomenalgrowthorexponentialincreaseofchilddevelopmentfromtheageof4to15yearsoldespeciallyduringtheageof4to7yearsoldbasedontheYamanachart[66]).TheHeckman'schartshowsthatthehighestreturnofinvestmentineducationismaximumduringtheearlyyears(age1to3yearsold)anddecreasestoaplateauduringtheschool-agedyearsandadolescence.[66]Therearevariouschilddevelopmenttablesorchartse.g.thePILEStablewherePILESstandsforPhysical,Intellectual,Language,EmotionalandSocialdevelopmentaspects.[67] Aspects[edit] Childdevelopmentisnotamatterofasingletopic,butprogressessomewhatdifferentlyfordifferentaspectsoftheindividual.Herearedescriptionsofthedevelopmentofanumberofphysicalandmentalcharacteristics.[citationneeded] Physicalgrowth[edit] ForNorthAmerican,Indo-Iranian(India,Iran),andEuropeangirls ForNorthAmerican,Indo-Iranian(India,Iran),andEuropeanboys Thelarche(breastdevelopment)10.5y(8y–13y) Pubarche(pubichair)11y(8.5y–13.5y) Growthspurt11.25y(10y–12.5y) Menarche(firstmenstrualbleeding)12.5y(10.5y–14.5y) Wisdomtootheruption15.5y(14y-17y) Adultheightreached15.5y(14y–17y) Gonadarche(testicularenlargement)11.5y(9.5y–13.5y) Pubarche(pubichair)12y(10y–14y) Growthspurt13y(11y–15y) Spermarche(firstejaculation)13.5y(11.5y–15.5y) Wisdomtootheruption17y(15y-19y) Completionofgrowth17y(15y–19y) Physicalgrowthinstatureandweightoccursoverthe15–20yearsfollowingbirth,astheindividualchangesfromtheaverageweightof3.5 kgandlengthof50 cmatfulltermbirthtofulladultsize.Asstatureandweightincrease,theindividual'sproportionsalsochange,fromtherelativelylargeheadandsmalltorsoandlimbsoftheneonate,totheadult'srelativelysmallheadandlongtorsoandlimbs.[68]Thechild'spatternofgrowthisinahead-to-toedirection,orcephalocaudal,andinaninwardtooutwardpattern(centerofthebodytotheperipheral)calledproximodistal. Developmentfromchildhoodtotheendofpuberty,fromTheAdolescentPeriodDevelopmentofaboyfrom10to17yearsoldDevelopmentofagirlfrom4to16yearsold Speedandpattern[edit] Thespeedofphysicalgrowthisrapidinthemonthsafterbirth,thenslows,sobirthweightisdoubledinthefirstfourmonths,tripledbyage12months,butnotquadrupleduntil24months.[69]Growththenproceedsataslowrateuntilshortlybeforepuberty(between about9and15yearsofage),whenaperiodofrapidgrowthoccurs.[70] Growthisnotuniforminrateandtimingacrossallbodyparts.Atbirth,headsizeisalreadyrelativelyneartothatofanadult,butthelowerpartsofthebodyaremuchsmallerthanadultsize.Inthecourseofdevelopment,then,theheadgrowsrelativelylittle,andtorsoandlimbsundergoagreatdealofgrowth.[68] Mechanismsofchange[edit] Geneticfactorsplayamajorroleindeterminingthegrowthrate,andparticularlythechangesinproportioncharacteristicofearlyhumandevelopment.However,geneticfactorscanproducemaximumgrowthonlyifenvironmentalconditionsareadequate.Poornutritionandfrequentinjuryanddiseasecanreducetheindividual'sadultstature,butthebestenvironmentcannotcausegrowthtoagreaterstaturethanisdeterminedbyheredity.[68] Individualvariationversusdisease[edit] Individualdifferencesinheightandweightduringchildhoodareconsiderable.Someofthesedifferencesareduetofamilygeneticfactors,otherstoenvironmentalfactors,butatsomepointsindevelopmenttheymaybestronglyinfluencedbyindividualdifferencesinreproductivematuration.[68] TheAmericanAssociationofClinicalEndocrinologistsdefinesshortstatureasheightmorethan2standarddeviationsbelowthemeanforageandgender,whichcorrespondstotheshortest2.3%ofindividuals.[71]Incontrast,failuretothriveisusuallydefinedintermsofweight,andcanbeevaluatedeitherbyalowweightforthechild'sage,orbyalowrateofincreaseintheweight.[72]Asimilarterm,stuntedgrowth,generallyreferstoreducedgrowthrateasamanifestationofmalnutritioninearlychildhood. Motor[edit] Achildlearningtowalk Abilitiesforphysicalmovementchangethroughchildhoodfromthelargelyreflexive(unlearned,involuntary)movementpatternsoftheyounginfanttothehighlyskilledvoluntarymovementscharacteristicoflaterchildhoodandadolescence. Definition[edit] "Motorlearningreferstotheincreasingspatialandtemporalaccuracyofmovementswithpractice".[73] Motorskillscanbedividedintotwocategories:firstasbasicskillsnecessaryforeverydaylifeandsecondly,asrecreationalskillssuchasskillsforemploymentorcertainspecialtiesbasedoninterest. Speedandpattern[edit] Thespeedofmotordevelopmentisrapidinearlylife,asmanyofthereflexesofthenewbornalterordisappearwithinthefirstyear,andslowlater.Likephysicalgrowth,motordevelopmentshowspredictablepatternsofcephalocaudal(headtofoot)andproximodistal(torsotoextremities)development,withmovementsattheheadandinthemorecentralareascomingundercontrolbeforethoseofthelowerpartofthebodyorthehandsandfeet.Typesofmovementdevelopinstage-likesequences;[74]forexample,locomotionat6–8monthsinvolvescreepingonallfours,thenproceedstopullingtostand,"cruising"whileholdingontoanobject,walkingwhileholdinganadult'shand,andfinallywalkingindependently.[74]Bymiddlechildhoodandadolescence,newmotorskillsareacquiredbyinstructionorobservationratherthaninapredictablesequence.[36]Thereareexecutivefunctionsofthebrain(workingmemory,timingmeasureofinhibitionandswitching)whichareimportanttomotorskills.CritiquestotheorderofExecutiveFunctioningleadstoMotorSkills,suggestingMotorSkillscansupportExecutiveFunctioninginthebrain. Mechanisms[edit] Themechanismsinvolvedinmotordevelopmentinvolvesomegeneticcomponentsthatdeterminethephysicalsizeofbodypartsatagivenage,aswellasaspectsofmuscleandbonestrength.Themainareasofthebraininvolvedinmotorskillsarethefrontalcortex,parietalcortexandbasalganglia.Thedorsolateralfrontalcortexisresponsibleforstrategicprocessing.Theparietalcortexisimportantincontrollingperceptual-motorintegrationandthebasalgangliaandsupplementarymotorcortexareresponsibleformotorsequences. Accordingtoastudyshowingthedifferentrelationshipsbetweenlimbsofthebodyandcoordinationininfants,geneticcomponentshaveahugeimpactonmotordevelopment(Piek,Gasson,Barrett,&Case(2002)).Intra-limbcorrelations,likethestrongrelationshipanddistancebetweenhipandkneejoints,werestudiedandprovedtoaffectthewayaninfantwillwalk.Therearealsobiggergeneticfactorslikethetendencytousetheleftorrightsideofthebodymore,predictingthedominanthandearly.Samplet-testsprovedthattherewasasignificantdifferencebetweenbothsidesat18weeksforgirlsandtherightsidewasconsideredtobemoredominant(Pieketal.(2002)).Somefactors,likethefactthatboystendtohavelargerandlongerarmsarebiologicalconstraintsthatwecannotcontrol,yethaveaninfluenceforexample,onwhenaninfantwillreach sufficiently.Overall,therearesociologicalfactorsandgeneticfactorsthatinfluencemotordevelopment.[75] Nutritionandexercisealsodeterminestrengthandthereforetheeaseandaccuracywithwhichabodypartcanbemoved.[36]Flexibilityisalsoaffectedbynutritionandexerciseaswell.[76]Ithasalsobeenshownthatthefrontallobedevelopsposterio-anteriorally(frombacktofront).Thisissignificantinmotordevelopmentbecausethehindportionofthefrontallobeisknowntocontrolmotorfunctions.Thisformofdevelopmentisknownas"PortionalDevelopment"andexplainswhymotorfunctionsdeveloprelativelyquicklyduringtypicalchildhooddevelopment,whilelogic,whichiscontrolledbythemiddleandfrontportionsofthefrontallobe,usuallywillnotdevelopuntillatechildhoodandearlyadolescence.[77]Opportunitiestocarryoutmovementshelpestablishtheabilitiestoflex(movetowardthetrunk)andextendbodyparts,bothcapacitiesarenecessaryforgoodmotorability.Skilledvoluntarymovementssuchaspassingobjectsfromhandtohanddevelopasaresultofpracticeandlearning.[36]MasteryClimateisasuggestedsuccessfullearningenvironmentforchildrentopromotemotorskillsbytheirownmotivation.Thispromotesparticipationandactivelearninginchildren,whichaccordingtoPiaget'stheoryofcognitivedevelopmentisextremelyimportantinearlychildhoodrule. Individualdifferences[edit] Typicalindividualdifferencesinmotorabilityarecommonanddependinpartonthechild'sweightandbuild.Infantswithsmaller,slimmer,andmorematurelyproportionatedbuildstendedtobellycrawlandcrawlearlierthantheinfantswithlargerbuilds.Infantswithmoremotorexperiencehavebeenshowntobellycrawlandcrawlsooner.Notallinfantsgothroughthestagesofbellycrawling.However,thosewhoskipthestageofbellycrawlingarenotasproficientintheirabilitytocrawlontheirhandsandknees.[78]Aftertheinfantperiod,typicalindividualdifferencesarestronglyaffectedbyopportunitiestopractice,observe,andbeinstructedonspecificmovements.Atypicalmotordevelopmentsuchaspersistentprimitivereflexisbeyond4–6monthsordelayedwalkingmaybeanindicationofdevelopmentaldelaysorconditionssuchasautism,cerebralpalsy,ordownsyndrome.[36]Lowermotorcoordinationresultsindifficultieswithspeedaccuracyandtrade-offincomplextasks. Childrenwithdisabilities[edit] ChildrenwithDownsyndromeorDevelopmentalcoordinationdisorderarelatetoreachmajormotorskillsmilestones.Afewexamplesofthesemilestonesaresucking,grasping,rolling,sittingupandwalking,talking.ChildrenwithDownsyndromesometimeshaveheartproblems,frequentearinfections,hypotonia,orundevelopedmusclemass.Thissyndromeiscausedbyatypicalchromosomaldevelopment.AlongwithDownsyndrome,childrencanalsobediagnosedwithalearningdisability.LearningDisabilitiesincludedisabilitiesinanyoftheareasrelatedtolanguage,reading,andmathematics.Basicreadingskillsisthemostcommonlearningdisabilityinchildren,which,likeotherdisabilities,focusesonthedifferencebetweenachild'sacademicachievementandhisorherapparentcapacitytolearn.[79] Populationdifferences[edit] Regardlessofthecultureababyisborninto,theyarebornwithafewcoredomainsofknowledge.Theseprincipalsallowhimorhertomakesenseoftheirenvironmentandlearnuponpreviousexperiencebyusingmotorskillssuchasgraspingorcrawling.Therearesomepopulationdifferencesinmotordevelopment,withgirlsshowingsomeadvantagesinsmallmuscleusage,includingarticulationofsoundswithlipsandtongue.Ethnicdifferencesinreflexmovementsofnewborninfantshavebeenreported,suggestingthatsomebiologicalfactorisatwork.Culturaldifferencesmayencouragelearningofmotorskillslikeusingthelefthandonlyforsanitarypurposesandtherighthandforallotheruses,producingapopulationdifference.[80]Culturalfactorsarealsoseenatworkinpracticedvoluntarymovementssuchastheuseofthefoottodribbleasoccerballorthehandtodribbleabasketball.[36] Cognitive/intellectual[edit] Thissectionneedsexpansion.Youcanhelpbyaddingtoit.(June2008) Cognitivedevelopmentisprimarilyconcernedwithwaysinwhichyoungchildrenacquire,develop,anduseinternalmentalcapabilitiessuchasproblem-solving,memory,andlanguage. Mechanisms[edit] Cognitivedevelopmenthasgeneticandotherbiologicalmechanisms,asisseeninthemanygeneticcausesofintellectualdisability.Environmentalfactorsincludingfoodandnutrition,theresponsivenessofparents,dailyexperiences,physicalactivityandlovecaninfluenceearlybraindevelopmentofchildren.[81]However,althoughitisassumedthatbrainfunctionscausecognitiveevents,ithasnotbeenpossibletomeasurespecificbrainchangesandshowthattheycausecognitivechange.Developmentaladvancesincognitionarealsorelatedtoexperienceandlearning,andthisisparticularlythecaseforhigher-levelabilitieslikeabstraction,whichdependtoaconsiderableextentonformaleducation.[36] Speedandpattern[edit] Theabilitytolearntemporalpatternsinsequencedactionswasinvestigatedinelementary-school-agechildren.Temporallearningdependsuponaprocessofintegratingtimingpatternswithactionsequences.Childrenages6–13andyoungadultsperformedaserialresponsetimetaskinwhicharesponseandatimingsequencewerepresentedrepeatedlyinaphase-matchedmanner,allowingforintegrativelearning.Thedegreeofintegrativelearningwasmeasuredastheslowinginperformancethatresultedwhenphase-shiftingthesequences.Learningwassimilarforthechildrenandadultsonaveragebutincreasedwithageforthechildren.ExecutivefunctionmeasuredbyWisconsinCardSortingTest(WCST)performanceaswellasameasureofresponsespeedalsoimprovedwithage.Finally,WCSTperformanceandresponsespeedpredictedtemporallearning.Takentogether,theresultsindicatethattemporallearningcontinuestodevelopinpre-adolescentsandthatmaturingexecutivefunctionorprocessingspeedmayplayanimportantroleinacquiringtemporalpatternsinsequencedactionsandthedevelopmentofthisability.[82] Individualdifferences[edit] Therearetypicalindividualdifferencesintheagesatwhichspecificcognitiveabilitiesareachieved,[36]butschoolingforchildreninindustrializedcountriesisbasedontheassumptionthatthesedifferencesarenotlarge.[36]Atypicaldelaysincognitivedevelopmentareproblematicforchildreninculturesthatdemandadvancedcognitiveskillsforworkandforindependentliving.[36] Populationdifferences[edit] Therearefewpopulationdifferencesincognitivedevelopment.[36]Boysandgirlsshowsomedifferencesintheirskillsandpreferences,butthereisagreatdealofoverlapbetweenthegroups.[36]Differencesincognitiveachievementofdifferentethnicgroupsappearstoresultfromculturalorotherenvironmentalfactors.[36] Social-emotional[edit] Mainarticle:Socialemotionaldevelopment Factors[edit] Newborninfantsdonotseemtoexperiencefearorhavepreferencesforcontactwithanyspecificpeople.Inthefirstfewmonthstheyonlyexperiencehappiness,sadness,andanger.[citationneeded]Ababy'sfirstsmileusuallyoccursbetween6and10weeks.Itiscalleda'socialsmile'becauseitusuallyoccursduringsocialinteractions.[83]Byabout8–12months,theygothroughafairlyrapidchangeandbecomefearfulofperceivedthreats;theyalsobegintopreferfamiliarpeopleandshowanxietyanddistresswhenseparatedfromthemorapproachedbystrangers.[citationneeded] Separationanxietyisatypicalstageofdevelopmenttoanextent.Kicking,screaming,andthrowingtempertantrumsareperfectlytypicalsymptomsforseparationanxiety.Dependingonthelevelofintensity,onemaydeterminewhetherornotachildhasseparationanxietydisorder.Thisiswhenachildconstantlyrefusestoseparatefromtheparent,butinanintensemanner.Thiscanbegivenspecialtreatmentbuttheparentusuallycannotdoanythingaboutthesituation.[84] Thecapacityforempathyandtheunderstandingofsocialrulesbegininthepreschoolperiodandcontinuetodevelopintoadulthood.[citationneeded]Middlechildhoodischaracterizedbyfriendshipswithage-mates,andadolescencebyemotionsconnectedwithsexualityandthebeginningsofromanticlove.[36]Angerseemsmostintenseduringthetoddlerandearlypreschoolperiodandduringadolescence.[36] Speedandpattern[edit] Someaspectsofsocial-emotionaldevelopment,[citationneeded]likeempathy,[citationneeded]developgradually,butothers,likefearfulness,[citationneeded]seemtoinvolvearathersuddenreorganizationofthechild'sexperienceofemotion.[36]Sexualandromanticemotionsdevelopinconnectionwithphysicalmaturation.[36] Mechanisms[edit] Geneticfactorsappeartoregulatesomesocial-emotionaldevelopmentsthatoccuratpredictableages,suchasfearfulness,andattachmenttofamiliarpeople.Experienceplaysaroleindeterminingwhichpeoplearefamiliar,whichsocialrulesareobeyed,andhowangerisexpressed.[36] Parentingpracticeshavebeenshowntopredictchildren'semotionalintelligence.Theobjectiveistostudythetimemothersandchildrenspenttogetherinjointactivity,thetypesofactivitiesthattheydevelopwhentheyaretogether,andtherelationthatthoseactivitieshavewiththechildren'straitemotionalintelligence.Datawascollectedforbothmothersandchildren(N=159)usingself-reportquestionnaires.CorrelationsbetweentimevariablesandtraitemotionalintelligencedimensionswerecomputedusingPearson'sProduct-MomentCorrelationCoefficient.Partialcorrelationsbetweenthesamevariablescontrollingforresponsiveparentingwerealsocomputed.Theamountoftimemothersspentwiththeirchildrenandthequalityoftheirinteractionsareimportantintermsofchildren'straitemotionalintelligence,notonlybecausethosetimesofjointactivityreflectamorepositiveparenting,butbecausetheyarelikelytopromotemodeling,reinforcement,sharedattention,andsocialcooperation.[85] Populationdifferences[edit] Populationdifferencesmayoccurinolderchildren,if,forexample,theyhavelearnedthatitisappropriateforboystoexpressemotionorbehavedifferentlyfromgirls,[86]orifcustomslearnedbychildrenofoneethnicgrouparedifferentfromthoselearnedinanother.[86]Socialandemotionaldifferencesbetweenboysandgirlsofagivenagemayalsobeassociatedwithdifferencesinthetimingofpubertycharacteristicofthetwosexes.[36] Gender[edit] Genderidentityinvolveshowapersonperceivesthemselvesasmale,female,oravariationofthetwo.Childrencanidentifythemselvesasbelongingtoacertaingenderasearlyastwoyearsold,[87]buthowgenderidentityisdevelopedisatopicofscientificdebate.Severalfactorsareinvolvedindetermininganindividual'sgender,including:neonatalhormones,postnatalsocialization,andgeneticinfluences.[88]Somebelievethatgenderismalleableuntillatechildhood,[88]whileothersarguethatgenderisestablishedearlyandgender-typedsocializationpatternseitherreinforceorsoftentheindividual'snotionofgender.[89]Sincemostpeopleidentifyasthegenderthatistypicallyassociatedtotheirgenitalia,studyingtheimpactofthesefactorsisdifficult.Evidencesuggeststhatneonatalandrogens,malesexhormonesproducedinthewombduringgestation,playanimportantrole.Testosteroneinthewombdirectlycodesthebrainforeithermaleorfemale-typicaldevelopment.Thisincludesboththephysicalstructureofthebrainandthecharacteristicsthepersonexpressesbecauseofit.Personsexposedtohighlevelsoftestosteroneduringgestationtypicallydevelopamalegenderidentitywhilethosewhoarenotorthosewhodonotpossessthereceptorsnecessarytointeractwiththesehormonestypicallydevelopafemalegenderidentity.[88][90]Anindividual'sgenesarealsothoughttointeractwiththehormonesduringgestationandinturnaffectgenderidentity,butthegenesresponsibleforthisandtheireffectshavenotbeenpreciselydocumentedandevidenceislimited.[90]Itisunknownwhethersocializationplaysapartindetermininggenderidentitypostnatally.Itiswelldocumentedthatchildrenactivelyseekoutinformationonhowtoproperlyinteractwithothersbasedontheirgender,[89]buttheextenttowhichtheserolemodels,whichcanincludeparents,friends,andTVcharacters,influencegenderidentityislessclearandnoconsensushasbeenreached. Race[edit] Inadditiontothecourseofdevelopment,previousliteraturehaslookedathowrace,ethnicity,andsocioeconomicstatushasaffectedchilddevelopment.Somestudiesseemtospeaktotheimportanceofadultsupervisionofadolescentyouth.[91]LiteraturesuggestedthatAfricanAmericanschilddevelopmentwassometimesdifferentiatedonthebasisofculturalsocializationandracialsocialization.Further,adifferentstudyfoundthatimmigrantyouthtendedtochoosemajorsfocusingonthefieldsofscienceandmathmoreoftenthannot. Languageandcommunication[edit] Mainarticle:Languagedevelopment Mechanisms[edit] Languageservesthepurposeofcommunicationtoexpressoneselfthroughasystematicandtraditionaluseofsounds,signs,orwrittensymbols.[92]Therearefoursubcomponentsinwhichthechildmustattaininordertoacquirelanguagecompetence.Theyincludephonology,lexicon,morphologyandsyntax,andpragmatics.[93]Thesesubcomponentsoflanguagedevelopmentarecombinedtoformthecomponentsoflanguage,whicharesociolinguisticsandliteracy.[92]Currently,thereisnosingleacceptedtheoryoflanguageacquisitionbutvariousexplanationsoflanguagedevelopmenthavebeenaccumulated. Components[edit] Thefourcomponentsoflanguagedevelopmentinclude: Phonologyisconcernedwiththesoundsoflanguage.[94]Itisthefunction,behavior,andorganizationofsoundsaslinguisticitems.[95]Phonologyconsiderswhatthesoundsoflanguageareandwhattherulesareforcombiningsounds.Phonologicalacquisitioninchildrencanbemeasuredbyaccuracyandfrequencyofproductionofvariousvowelsandconsonants,theacquisitionofphonemiccontrastsanddistinctivefeatures,orbyviewingdevelopmentinregularstagesintheirownspeechsoundsystemsandtocharacterizesystematicstrategiestheyadopt.[96] Lexiconisacomplexdictionaryofwordsthatenableslanguagespeakerstousethesewordsinspeechproductionandcomprehension.[97]Lexiconistheinventoryofalanguage'smorphemes.Morphemesactasminimalmeaning-bearingelementsorbuildingblocksofsomethinginlanguagethatmakessense.Forexample,intheword"cat",thecomponent"cat"makessenseasdoes"at",but"at"doesnotmeanthesamethingas"cat".Inthisexample,"ca"doesnotmeananything. Morphologyisthestudyofformorforms.Itisthementalsysteminvolvedinwordformationortothebranchoflinguisticsthatdealswithwords,theirinternalstructureandhowtheyareformed.[98] Pragmaticsisthestudyofrelationshipsbetweenlinguisticformsandtheusersofthoseforms.[99]Italsoincorporatestheuseofutterancetoservedifferentfunctionsandcanbedefinedastheabilitytocommunicateone'sfeelingsanddesirestoothers.[100] Children'sdevelopmentoflanguagealsoincludessemanticswhichistheattachmentofmeaningtowords.Thishappensinthreestages.First,eachwordmeansanentiresentence.Forexample,ayoungchildmaysay"mama"butthechildmaymean"HereisMama","WhereisMama?",or"IseeMama."Inthesecondstage,wordshavemeaningbutdonothavecompletedefinitions.Thisstageoccursaroundagetwoorthree.Third,aroundagesevenoreight,wordshaveadult-likedefinitionsandtheirmeaningsaremorecomplete.[101] Achildlearnsthesyntaxoftheirlanguagewhentheyareabletojoinwordstogetherintosentencesandunderstandmultiple-wordsentencessaidbyotherpeople.Thereappeartobesixmajorstagesinwhichachild'sacquisitionofsyntaxdevelops.[102]First,istheuseofsentence-likewordsinwhichthechildcommunicatesusingonewordwithadditionalvocalandbodilycues.Thisstageusuallyoccursbetween12and18monthsofage.Second,between18monthstotwoyears,thereisthemodificationstagewherechildrencommunicaterelationshipsbymodifyingatopicword.Thethirdstage,betweentwoandthreeyearsold,involvesthechildusingcompletesubject-predicatestructurestocommunicaterelationships.Fourth,childrenmakechangesonbasicsentencestructurethatenablesthemtocommunicatemorecomplexrelationships.Thisstageoccursbetweentheagesoftwoandahalfyearstofouryears.Thefifthstageofcategorizationinvolveschildrenagedthreeandahalftosevenyearsrefiningtheirsentenceswithmorepurposefulwordchoicethatreflectstheircomplexsystemofcategorizingwordtypes.Finally,childrenusestructuresoflanguagethatinvolvemorecomplicatesyntacticrelationshipsbetweentheagesoffiveyearsoldtotenyearsold.[102] Milestones[edit] Infantsbeginwithcooingandsoftvowelsounds.Shortlyafterbirth,thissystemisdevelopedastheinfantsbegintounderstandthattheirnoises,ornon-verbalcommunication,leadtoaresponsefromtheircaregiver.[103]Thiswillthenprogressintobabblingaround5monthsofage,withinfantsfirstbabblingconsonantandvowelsoundstogetherthatmaysoundlike"ma"or"da".[104]Ataround8monthsofage,babblingincreasestoincluderepetitionofsounds,suchas"da-da"andinfantslearntheformsforwordsandwhichsoundsaremorelikelytofollowothersounds.[104]Atthisstage,muchofthechild'scommunicationisopentointerpretation.Forexample,ifachildsays"bah"whenthey'reinatoyroomwiththeirguardian,itislikelytobeinterpretedas"ball"becausethetoyisinsight.However,ifyouweretolistentothesame'word'onarecordedtapewithoutknowingthecontext,onemightnotbeabletofigureoutwhatthechildwastryingtosay.[103]Achild'sreceptivelanguage,theunderstandingofothers'speech,hasagradualdevelopmentbeginningatabout6months.[105]However,expressivelanguage,theproductionofwords,movesrapidlyafteritsbeginningataboutayearofage,witha"vocabularyexplosion"ofrapidwordacquisitionoccurringinthemiddleofthesecondyear.[105]Grammaticalrulesandwordcombinationsappearataboutagetwo.[105]Between20and28months,childrenmovefromunderstandingthedifferencebetweenhighandlow,hotandcoldandbegintochange"no"to"waitaminute","notnow"and"why".Eventually,theyareabletoaddpronounstowordsandcombinethemtoformshortsentences.[103]Masteryofvocabularyandgrammarcontinuegraduallythroughthepreschoolandschoolyears.[105]Adolescentsstillhavesmallervocabulariesthanadultsandexperiencemoredifficultywithconstructionssuchasthepassivevoice.[105] Byage1,thechildisabletosay1–2words,respondstoitsname,imitatesfamiliarsoundsandcanfollowsimpleinstructions.[104]Between1–2yearsold,thechilduses5–20words,isabletosay2-wordsentencesandisabletoexpresstheirwishesbysayingwordslike"more"or"up",andtheyunderstandtheword"no".[104]During2and3yearsofage,thechildisabletorefertoitselfas"me",combinenounsandverbs,hasavocabularyofabout450words,useshortsentences,usesomesimplepluralsandisabletoanswer"where"questions.[104]Byage4,childrenareabletousesentencesof4–5wordsandhasavocabularyofabout1000words.[104]Childrenbetweentheagesof4and5yearsoldareabletousepasttense,haveavocabularyofabout1,500words,andaskquestionslike"why?"and"who?".[104]Byage6,thechildhasavocabularyof2,600words,isabletoformsentencesof5–6wordsanduseavarietyofdifferenttypesofsentences.[104]Bytheageof5or6yearsold,themajorityofchildrenhavemasteredthebasicsoftheirnativelanguage.[104]Infants,15month-olds,areinitiallyunabletounderstandfamiliarwordsintheirnativelanguagepronouncedusinganunfamiliaraccent.[106]ThismeansthataCanadian-EnglishspeakinginfantcannotrecognizefamiliarwordspronouncedwithanAustralian-Englishaccent.Thisskilldevelopsclosetotheirsecondbirthdays.[106]However,thiscanbeovercomewhenahighlyfamiliarstoryisreadinthenewaccentpriortothetest,suggestingtheessentialfunctionsofunderlyingspokenlanguageisinplacebeforepreviouslythought.[106] Vocabularytypicallygrowsfromabout20wordsat18monthstoaround200wordsat21months.[105]Fromaround18monthsthechildstartstocombinewordsintotwo-wordsentences.[105]Typicallytheadultexpandsittoclarifymeaning.[105]By24–27monthsthechildisproducingthreeorfour-wordsentencesusingalogical,ifnotstrictlycorrect,syntax.[105]Thetheoryisthatchildrenapplyabasicsetofrulessuchasadding's'forpluralsorinventingsimplerwordsoutofwordstoocomplicatedtorepeatlike"choskit"forchocolatebiscuit.[105]Followingthisthereisarapidappearanceofgrammaticalrulesandorderingofsentences.[105]Thereisoftenaninterestinrhyme,andimaginativeplayfrequentlyincludesconversations.Children'srecordedmonologuesgiveinsightintothedevelopmentoftheprocessoforganizinginformationintomeaningfulunits.[105] Bythreeyearsthechildbeginstousecomplexsentences,includingrelativeclauses,althoughstillperfectingvariouslinguisticsystems.[105]Byfiveyearsofagethechild'suseoflanguageisverysimilartothatofanadult.[105]Fromtheageofaboutthreechildrencanindicatefantasyormake-believelinguistics,producecoherentpersonalstoriesandfictionalnarrativewithbeginningsandendings.[105]Itisarguedthatchildrendevisenarrativeasawayofunderstandingtheirownexperienceandasamediumforcommunicatingtheirmeaningtoothers.[105]Theabilitytoengageinextendeddiscourseemergesovertimefromregularconversationwithadultsandpeers.Forthis,thechildneedstolearntocombinehisperspectivewiththatofothersandwithoutsideeventsandlearntouselinguisticindicatorstoshowheisdoingthis.Theyalsolearntoadjusttheirlanguagedependingontowhomtheyarespeaking.[105]Typicallybytheageofabout9achildcanrecountothernarrativesinadditiontotheirownexperiences,fromtheperspectivesoftheauthor,thecharactersinthestoryandtheirownviews.[105] Sequentialskillinlearningtotalk[edit] ChildAgeinMonths LanguageSkill 0–3 Vocalplay:cry,coo,gurgle,grunt 3– Babble:undifferentiatedsounds 6–10 Babble:canonical/reduplicatedsyllables 9- Imitation 8–18 Firstwords 13–15 Expressivejargon,intonationalsentences 13–19 10-wordvocabulary 14–24 50-wordvocabulary 13–27 Single-wordstageandafewsentences,two-to-three-wordcombinations,Articles:a/the,Plural:-s 23–24 Irregularpast:went,modalandverb:can/will,28to436-wordvocabulary,93–265utterancesperhour 25–27 Regularpast:-ed,Auxiliary"be":-'m,-'s 23–26 Third-personsingular:-s,896to1507-wordvocabulary,1500to1700wordsperhour [107] Theories[edit] Althoughtheroleofadultdiscourseisimportantinfacilitatingthechild'slearning,thereisconsiderabledisagreementamongtheoristsabouttheextenttowhichchildren'searlymeaningsandexpressivewordsarise.Findingsabouttheinitialmappingofnewwords,theabilitytodecontextualizewords,andrefinemeaningofwordsarediverse.[11]Onehypothesisisknownasthesyntacticbootstrappinghypothesiswhichreferstothechild'sabilitytoinfermeaningfromcues,usinggrammaticalinformationfromthestructureofsentences.[108]Anotheristhemulti-routemodelinwhichitisarguedthatcontext-boundwordsandreferentialwordsfollowdifferentroutes;thefirstbeingmappedontoeventrepresentationsandthelatterontomentalrepresentations.Inthismodel,parentalinputhasacriticalrolebutthechildrenultimatelyrelyoncognitiveprocessingtoestablishsubsequentuseofwords.[109]However,naturalisticresearchonlanguagedevelopmenthasindicatedthatpreschoolers'vocabulariesarestronglyassociatedwiththenumberofwordsaddressedtothembyadults.[110] Thereisnosingleacceptedtheoryoflanguageacquisition.Instead,therearecurrenttheoriesthathelptoexplaintheoriesoflanguage,theoriesofcognition,andtheoriesofdevelopment.Theyincludethegenerativisttheory,socialinteractionisttheory,usage-basedtheory(Tomasello),connectionisttheory,andbehavioristtheory(Skinner).GenerativisttheoriesrefertoUniversalGrammarbeinginnatewherelanguageexperienceactivatesinnateknowledge.[111]Socialinteractionisttheoriesdefinelanguageasasocialphenomenon.Thistheorystatesthatchildrenacquirelanguagebecausetheywanttocommunicatewithothers;thistheoryisheavilybasedonsocial-cognitiveabilitiesthatdrivethelanguageacquisitionprocess.[111]Usage-basedtheoriesdefinelanguageasasetofformulasthatemergefromthechild'slearningabilitiesincorrespondencewithitssocialcognitiveinterpretationandunderstandingofthespeakers'intendedmeanings.[111]Connectionisttheoriesisapattern-learningprocedureanddefineslanguageasasystemcomposedofsmallersubsystemsorpatternsofsoundormeaning.[111]Behavioristtheoriesdefinelanguageastheestablishmentofpositivereinforcement,butisnowregardedatheoryofhistoricalinterest.[111] Language[edit] Communicationcanbedefinedastheexchangeandnegotiationofinformationbetweentwoormoreindividualsthroughverbalandnonverbalsymbols,oralandwritten(orvisual)modes,andtheproductionandcomprehensionprocessesofcommunication.[112]AccordingtoFirstInternationalCongressfortheStudyofChildLanguage,"thegeneralhypothesis[isthat]accesstosocialinteractionisaprerequisitetonormallanguageacquisition".[113]Principlesofconversationincludetwoormorepeoplefocusingononetopic.Allquestionsinaconversationshouldbeanswered,commentsshouldbeunderstoodoracknowledgedandanyformofdirectionshould,intheory,befollowed.Inthecaseofyoung,undevelopedchildren,theseconversationsareexpectedtobebasicorredundant.Theroleofaguardiansduringdevelopingstagesistoconveythatconversationismeanttohaveapurpose,aswellasteachingthemtorecognizetheotherspeaker'semotions.[113]Communicativelanguageisnonverbaland/orverbal,andtoachievecommunicationcompetence,fourcomponentsmustbemet.Thesefourcomponentsofcommunicationcompetenceinclude:grammaticalcompetence(vocabularyknowledge,rulesofwordsentenceformation,etc.),sociolinguisticcompetence(appropriatenessofmeaningsandgrammaticalformsindifferentsocialcontexts),discoursecompetence(knowledgerequiredtocombineformsandmeanings),andstrategiccompetence(knowledgeofverbalandnonverbalcommunicationstrategies).[112]Theattainmentofcommunicativecompetenceisanessentialpartofactualcommunication.[114] Languagedevelopmentisviewedasamotivetocommunication,andthecommunicativefunctionoflanguagein-turnprovidesthemotiveforlanguagedevelopment.JeanPiagetusestheterm"actedconversations"toexplainachild'sstyleofcommunicationthatrelymoreheavilyongesturesandbodymovements,ratherthanwords.[102]Youngerchildrendependongesturesforadirectstatementoftheirmessage.Astheybegintoacquiremorelanguage,bodymovementstakeonadifferentroleandbegintocomplementtheverbalmessage.[102]Thesenonverbalbodilymovementsallowchildrentoexpresstheiremotionsbeforetheycanexpressthemverbally.Thechild'snonverbalcommunicationofhowthey'refeelingisseeninbabies0to3monthswhousewild,jerkymovementsofthebodytoshowexcitementordistress.[102]Thisdevelopstomorerhythmicmovementsoftheentirebodyat3to5monthstodemonstratethechild'sangerordelight.[102]Between9–12monthsofage,childrenviewthemselvesasjoiningthecommunicativeworld.[92]Before9–12months,babiesinteractwithobjectsandinteractwithpeople,buttheydonotinteractwithpeopleaboutobjects.Thisdevelopmentalchangeisthechangefromprimaryintersubjectivity(capacitytoshareoneselfwithothers)tosecondaryintersubjectivity(capacitytoshareone'sexperience),whichchangestheinfantfromanunsociabletosociallyengagingcreature.[92]Around12monthsofageacommunicativeuseofgestureisused.Thisgestureincludescommunicativepointingwhereaninfantpointstorequestsomething,ortopointtoprovideinformation.[92]Anothergestureofcommunicationispresentedaroundtheageof10and11monthswhereinfantsstartgaze-following;theylookwhereanotherpersonislooking.[92]Thisjointattentionresultinchangestotheirsocialcognitiveskillsbetweentheagesof9and15monthsastheirtimeisspentincreasinglywithothers.[92]Children'suseofnon-verbalcommunicativegesturesforetellsfuturelanguagedevelopment.Theuseofnon-verbalcommunicationintheformofgesturesindicatethechild'sinterestincommunicationdevelopment,andthemeaningstheychoosetoconveythataresoonrevealedthroughtheverbalizationoflanguage.[92] Languageacquisitionanddevelopmentcontributetotheverbalformofcommunication.Childrenoriginatewithalinguisticsystemwherewordstheylearn,arethewordsusedforfunctionalmeaning.[111]Thisinstigationofspeechhasbeentermedpragmaticbootstrapping.Accordingtothis,childrenviewwordsasameansofsocialconstruction,andthatwordsareusedtoconnecttheunderstandingofcommunicativeintentionsofthespeakerwhospeaksanewword.[111]Hence,thecompetenceofverbalcommunicationthroughlanguageisachievedthroughtheattainabilityofsyntaxorgrammar.Anotherfunctionofcommunicationthroughlanguageispragmaticdevelopment.[115]Pragmaticdevelopmentincludesthechild'sintentionsofcommunicationbeforehe/sheknowshowtoexpresstheseintentions,andthroughoutthefirstfewyearsoflifebothlanguageandcommunicativefunctionsdevelop.[111] Whenchildrenacquirelanguageandlearntouselanguageforcommunicativefunctions(pragmatics),childrenalsogainknowledgeabouttheparticipationinconversationsandrelatingtopastexperiences/events(discourseknowledge),andhowtouselanguageappropriatelyincongruencewiththeirsocialsituationorsocialgroup(sociolinguisticknowledge).[111]Withinthefirsttwoyearsoflife,achild'slanguageabilityprogressesandconversationalskills,suchasthemechanicsofverbalinteraction,develop.Mechanicsofverbalinteractionincludetakingturns,initiatingtopics,repairingmiscommunication,andrespondingtolengthenorsustaindialogue.[111]Conversationisasymmetricalwhenachildinteractswithanadultbecausetheadultistheonetocreatestructureintheconversation,andtobuilduponthechild'scontributions.Inaccordancetothechild'sdevelopingconversationalskills,asymmetricalconversationbetweenadultandchildmodulatetoanequaltemperamentofconversation.Thisshiftinbalanceofconversationsuggestsanarrativediscoursedevelopmentincommunication.[111]Ordinarily,thedevelopmentofcommunicativecompetenceandthedevelopmentoflanguagearepositivelycorrelatedwithoneanother,[111]however,thecorrelationisnotflawless. Individualdifferences[edit] Delaysinlanguageisthemostfrequenttypeofdevelopmentaldelay.Accordingtodemographics1outof5childrenwilllearntotalkorusewordslaterthanotherchildrentheirage.Speech/languagedelayisthreetofourtimesmorecommoninboysthaningirls.Somechildrenwillalsodisplaybehavioralproblemsduetotheirfrustrationofnotbeingabletoexpresswhattheywantorneed. Simplespeechdelaysareusuallytemporary.Mostcasesaresolvedontheirownorwithalittleextraattributionfromthefamily.It'stheparent'sdutytoencouragetheirbabytotalktothemwithgesturesorsoundsandforthemtospendagreatamountoftimeplayingwith,readingto,andcommunicatingwiththeirbaby.Incertaincircumstances,parentswillhavetoseekprofessionalhelp,suchasaspeechtherapist. Itisimportanttotakeintoconsiderationsthatsometimesdelayscanbeawarningsignofmoreseriousconditionsthatcouldincludeauditoryprocessingdisorders,hearingloss,developmentalverbaldyspraxia,developmentaldelayinotherareas,orevenanautismspectrumdisorder(ASD). Environmentalcauses[edit] Therearemanyenvironmentalcausesthatarelinkedtolanguagedelaysandtheyincludesituationssuchas,thechildishavingtheirfullattentiononotherskills,suchaswalkingperfectly,ratherthanonlanguage.Thechildmayhaveatwinorasiblinginwhichtheiragearerelativelyclose,andmaynotbereceivingtheparent'sfullattention.Anothercircumstancecouldbeachildthatisinadaycarethatprovidesfewadultstobeabletoadministerindividualattention.Perhapsthemostobviouscomponentwouldbeachildthatsuffersfrompsychosocialdeprivationsuchaspoverty,malnutrition,poorhousing,neglect,inadequatelinguisticstimulation,oremotionalstress. Neurologicalcauses[edit] Languagedelaycanbecausedbyasubstantialnumberofunderlyingdisorders,suchasintellectualdisability.Intellectualdisabilitytakespartformorethan50percentoflanguagedelays.Languagedelayisusuallymorerigorousthanotherdevelopmentaldelaysinintellectuallydisabledchildren,anditisusuallythefirstobvioussymptomofintellectualdisability.Intellectualdisabilityaccountstogloballanguagedelay,includingdelayedauditorycomprehensionanduseofgestures. Impairedhearingisoneofthemostcommoncausesoflanguagedelay.Achildwhocannothearorprocessspeechinaclearandconsistentmannerwillhavealanguagedelay.Eventhemostminimumhearingimpairmentorauditoryprocessingdeficitcanconsiderablyaffectlanguagedevelopment.Essentially,themoretheseveretheimpairment,themoreseriousthelanguagedelay.Nevertheless,deafchildrenthatareborntofamilieswhousesignlanguagedevelopinfantbabbleanduseafullyexpressivesignlanguageatthesamepaceashearingchildren. DevelopmentalDyslexiaisadevelopmentalreadingdisorderthatoccurswhenthebraindoesnotproperlyrecognizeandprocessthegraphicsymbolschosenbysocietytorepresentthesoundsofspeech.Childrenwithdyslexiamayencounterproblemsinrhymingandseparatingsoundsthatcomposewords.Theseabilitiesareessentialinlearningtoread.Earlyreadingskillsrelyheavilyonwordrecognition.Whenusinganalphabetwritingsystemthisinvolvesinhavingtheabilitytoseparateoutthesoundsinwordsandbeabletomatchthemwithletterandgroupsofletters.Becausetheyhavetroubleinconnectingsoundsoflanguagetotheletterofwords,thismayresultdifficultyinunderstandingsentences.Theyhaveconfusioninmistakingletterssuchas"b"and"d".Forthemostpart,symptomsofdyslexiamayinclude,difficultyindeterminingthemeaningofasimplesentence,learningtorecognizewrittenwords,anddifficultyinrhyming. Autismandspeechdelayareusuallycorrelated.Problemswithverballanguagearethemostcommonsignsseeninautism.Earlydiagnosisandtreatmentofautismcansignificantlyhelpthechildimprovetheirspeechskills.Autismisrecognizedasoneofthefivepervasivedevelopmentaldisorders,distinguishedbyproblemswithlanguage,speech,communicationandsocialskillsthatpresentinearlychildhood.Somecommonautisticsyndromesarethefollowing,beinglimitedtonoverbalspeech,echolaliaorrepeatingwordsoutofcontext,problemsrespondingtoverbalinstructionandmayignoreotherswhospeakdirectly. Riskfactors[edit] Malnutrition,maternaldepression,andmaternalsubstanceusearethreeofthesefactorswhichhavereceivedparticularattentionbyresearchers,however,manymorefactorshavebeenconsidered.[116][117][118] Postnataldepression[edit] Mainarticle:Postpartumdepression Althoughtherearealargenumberofstudiescontemplatingtheeffectofmaternaldepressionandpostnataldepressionofvariousareasofinfantdevelopment,theyareyettocometoaconsensusregardingthetrueeffects.Therearenumerousstudiesindicatingimpaireddevelopment,andequally,therearemanyproclaimingnoeffectofdepressionondevelopment. Astudyof18-month-oldswhosemothershaddepressivesymptomswhiletheywere6weeksand/or6monthsoldindicatedthatmaternaldepressionhadnoeffectonthechild'scognitivedevelopmentat18months.[119]Furthermore,thestudyindicatesthatmaternaldepressioncombinedwithapoorhomeenvironmentismorelikelytohaveaneffectoncognitivedevelopment.However,theauthorsconcludethatitmaybethatshorttermdepressionhasnoeffect,whereaslongtermdepressioncouldcausemoreseriousproblems.Afurtherlongitudinalstudyspanning7yearsagainindicatenoeffectofmaternaldepressiononcognitivedevelopmentasawhole,howeveritfoundagenderdifferenceinthatboysaremoresusceptibletocognitivedevelopmentalissueswhentheirmothershaddepression.[117] Thisthreadiscontinuedinastudyofchildrenupto2yearsold.[120]Thestudyrevealsasignificantdifferenceoncognitivedevelopmentbetweengenders,withgirlshavingahigherscore,howeverthispatternisfoundregardlessofthechild'smother'shistoryofdepression.InfantswithchronicallydepressedmothersshowedsignificantlylowerscoresonthemotorandmentalscaleswithintheBayleyScalesofInfantDevelopment,[120]contrastingwithmanyolderstudies.[117][119]Asimilareffecthasbeenfoundat11years:malechildrenofdepressedmothersscoreanaverageof19.4pointsloweronanIntelligenceQuotientIQtestthanthosewithhealthymothers,althoughthisdifferenceismuchloweringirls.[121]3montholdswithdepressedmothersshowsignificantlylowerscoresontheGriffithsMentalDevelopmentScale,whichcoversarangeofdevelopmentalareasincludingcognitive,motorandsocialdevelopment.[122]Ithasbeensuggestedthatinteractionsbetweendepressedmothersandtheirchildrenmayaffectsocialandcognitiveabilitiesinlaterlife.[123] Maternaldepressionhasbeenshowntoinfluencethemothers'interactionwithherchild.[124]Whencommunicatingwiththeirchild,depressedmothersfailtomakechangestotheirvocalbehaviour,andtenduseunstructuredvocalbehaviours.[125]Furthermore,wheninfantsinteractwithdepressedmotherstheyshowsignsofstress,suchasincreasedpulseandraisedcortisollevels,andmakemoreuseofavoidancebehaviours,forexamplelookingaway,comparedtothoseinteractingwithhealthymothers.[123]Theeffectofmother-infantinteractionat2monthshasbeenshowntoaffectthechild'scognitiveperformanceat5years.[126]Recentstudieshavebeguntoidentifythatotherformsofpsychopathologythatmayormaynotbeco-morbidlyoccurringwithmaternaldepressioncanindependentlyinfluenceinfants'andtoddlers'subsequentsocial-emotionaldevelopmentthrougheffectsonregulatoryprocesseswithinthechild-parentattachment.[127]Maternalinterpersonalviolence-relatedpost-traumaticstressdisorder(PTSD),forexample,hasbeenassociatedwithsubsequentdysregulationofemotionandaggressionbyages4–7years.[128] Maternaldruguse[edit] Cocaine[edit] Mainarticle:Prenatalcocaineexposure Researchhasprovidedconflictingevidenceregardingtheeffectofmaternalsubstanceuseduringandafterpregnancyonchildren'sdevelopment.[118]Childrenexposedtococaineweighlessthanthosenotexposedatnumerousagesrangingfrom6to30months.[129]Furthermore,studiesindicatethattheheadcircumferenceofchildrenexposedtococaineislowerthanthoseunexposed.[129][130]Ontheotherhand,twomorerecentstudiesfoundnosignificantdifferencesbetweenthoseexposedtococaineandthosewhowerenotineithermeasure.[131][132] Maternalcocaineusemayalsoaffectthechild'scognitivedevelopment,withexposedchildrenachievinglowerscoresonmeasuresofpsychomotorandmentaldevelopment.[133][134]However,againthereisconflictingevidence,andanumberofstudiesindicatenoeffectofmaternalcocaineuseontheirchild'scognitivedevelopment.[135][136] Motordevelopmentcanbeimpairedbymaternalcocaineuse.[137][138]Asisthecaseforcognitiveandphysicaldevelopment,therearealsostudiesshowingnoeffectofcocaineuseonmotordevelopment.[129][132] Other[edit] Theuseofcocainebypregnantwomenisnottheonlydrugthatcanhaveanegativeeffectonthefetus.Tobacco,marijuana,andopiatesarealsothetypesofdrugsthatcanaffectanunbornchild'scognitiveandbehavioraldevelopment.Smokingtobaccoincreasespregnancycomplicationsincludinglowbirthrate,prematurity,placentalabruption,andintrauterinedeath.Itcanalsocausedisturbedmaternal-infantinteraction;reducedIQ,ADHD,anditcanespeciallycausetobaccouseinthechild.Parentalmarijuanaexposuremayhavelong-termemotionalandbehavioralconsequences.Aten-year-oldchildwhohadbeenexposedtothedrugduringpregnancyreportedmoredepressivesymptomsthanfetusesunexposed.Someshort-termeffectsincludeexecutivefunctionimpairment,readingdifficulty,anddelayedstateregulation.Anopiatedrug,suchasheroin,decreasesbirthweight,birthlength,andheadcircumferencewhenexposedtothefetus.Parentalopiateexposurehasgreaterconflictingimpactthanparentalcocaineexposureontheinfant'sCentralNervousSystemandautonomicnervoussystem.Therearealsosomenegativeconsequencesonachildthatyouwouldn'tthinkofwithopiates,suchas:lessrhythmicswallowing,strabismus,andfeelingsofrejection.[139] MalnutritionandUndernutrition[edit] Poornutritionearlyinlifecontributestostunting,andbytheageoftwoorthreecanbeassociatedwithcognitivedeficits,poorschoolachievement,andpoorsocialrelationshipslaterinlife[140]Malnutritionisalargeproblemindevelopingnations,andhasanimportanteffectonyoungchildren'sweightandheight.ChildrensufferingmalnutritioninColombiaweighedlessthanthoselivinginupperclassconditionsattheageof36months(11.88 kgcomparedto14 kg),similarly,malnourishedchildrenwereshorterthanwell-nourishedchildren,againat36months(85.3 cminmalnourishedchildren;94 cminwell-nourishedchildren[116] Malnutritionduringthefirst1000daysofachild'slifecancauseirreversiblephysicalandmentalstunting.[141]Infectionsandparasitesrelatedtopoorsanitationandhygienecanimpactabsorptionofnutrientsinthegut.[142]Adequatesanitationandhygiene(ratherthanjustaccesstofood)playacriticalroleinpreventingundernutrition,malnutritionandstunting[143][144][145][142]andensuringnormalearlychildhooddevelopment.[146]MalnutritionhasbeenindicatedasanegativeinfluenceonchildhoodIntelligenceQuotientIQ.[147][148]AlthoughitisnowsuggestedthatthiseffectisnullifiedwhenparentalIQisconsidered,implyingthatthisdifferenceisgenetic.[149] Nutrients[edit] TheeffectoflowironlevelsoncognitivedevelopmentandIQisasubjectstilltoreachconsensus.[150]Someevidencesuggeststhatwell-nourishedchildrenwithlowerlevelsofironandfolate(althoughnotatsuchaleveltobeconsidereddeficient)havealowerIQthanthosewithhigherlevelsofironandfolate.[151]Furthermore,anaemicchildrenperformworseoncognitivemeasuresthannon-anaemicchildren.[152]Thesenutrientshavebeenstronglyimplicatedinbraindevelopment,alongwithiodineandzinc.[153]Iodineisrequiredforthegenerationofthyroidhormonesnecessaryforbraindevelopment.[154]IodinedeficiencymayreduceIQbyanaverageof13.5pointscomparedtohealthyindividual.[155]Zincdeficiencyhasalsobeenshowntoslowchildhoodgrowthanddevelopment.[156][157]Zincsupplementationappearstobebeneficialforgrowthininfantsundersixmonthsold.[158] Socioeconomicstatus[edit] Socioeconomicstatusismeasuredprimarilybasedonthefactorsofincome,educationalattainmentandoccupation.[159]CurrentinvestigationsintotheroleofsocioeconomicfactorsonchilddevelopmentrepeatedlyshowthatcontinualpovertyismoreharmfulonIntelligenceQuotientIQ,[160]andcognitiveabilities[161]thanshort-livedpoverty. Childreninfamilieswhoexperiencepersistentfinancialhardshipsandpovertyhavesignificantlyimpairedcognitiveabilitiescomparedtothoseinfamilieswhodonotfacethisissue.[161]Lowincomepovertycancauseanumberoffurtherissuesshowntoeffectchilddevelopment,suchaspooracademicsuccess,lessfamilyinvolvement,irondeficiency,infections,alackofstimulation,[162]malnutritionandleadpoisoningduetoleadpaintfoundonthewallsofsomehouses.[163]Childbloodlevelsofleadincreaseasincomedecreases.[164]Incomepovertyisassociatedwitha6–13pointreductioninIQforthoseearninghalfofthepovertythresholdcomparedtothoseearningtwicethepovertythreshold.[160]Thatbeingsaid,childrencomingfromhouseholdsfeaturingcontinualortemporarypovertystillperformlowerthanchildreninmiddle-classfamilies.[161] Parentaleducationalattainmentisthemostsignificantsocioeconomicfactorinpredictingthechild'scognitiveabilities,[165]thosewithamotherwithhighIQarelikelytohavehigherIQsthemselves.[149][166]Similarly,maternaloccupationisassociatedwithbettercognitiveachievement.Thosewhosemothers'jobentailsproblem-solvingaremorelikelytobegivenstimulatingtasksandgames,andarelikelytoachievemoreadvancedverbalcompetency.[167] Mother'semploymentisassociatedwithslightlylowertestscores,regardlessofsocioeconomicstatus.However,thosewhoseworkingmotherisofahighersocioeconomicstatusexperiencemoredisadvantagesbecausetheyarebeingremovedfromamoreenrichingenvironmentthanachildcare.Obviously,thequalityofchildcareisafactortobeconsidered.Lowincomechildrentendtobecaredforbygrandparentsorextendedfamily[168]andthereforeformstrongbondswithfamily.Highincomechildrentendtobecaredforinachildcaresettingorinhomecaresuchasananny.Ifthemotherishighlyeducated,thiscanbeadisadvantagetothechild.Evenwithqualityofcarecontrolledfor,studiesstillfoundanegativecorrelationbetweenfull-timeworkwithinthefirstyearandchilddevelopment.[168]Childrenwhosemothersworkarealsolesslikelytoreceiveregularwell-babydoctorvisitsandlesslikelytobebreastfed,[169]whichhasbeenproventoimprovedevelopmentalfactors.Effectsarefeltmorestronglywhenwomenresumefull-timeworkwithinthefirstyearofthechild'slife.[170][171]Theseeffectsmaybedueinparttopre-existingdifferencesbetweenmotherswhoreturntoworkandthosewhodonotsuchasdifferencesincharacterorreasonforreturningtowork.[172] Low-incomefamiliesarelesslikelytoprovideastimulatinghomelearningenvironmenttotheirchildrenduetotimeconstraintsandfinancialstress.[173]Comparedtotwo-parenthouseholds,childrenwithasingle-parentgenerallydon'thavebettersocial,behavioral,educational,orcognitiveoutcomesthanthosewithtwoparentsbecauseofeconomicvulnerabilityandalackofparentalinvolvement.[174]Achild'sacademicachievementisinfluencedbyparents'educationalattainment,parentingstyle,andparentalinvestmentintheirchild'scognitiveandeducationalsuccess.Upper-incomefamiliesareabletoaffordlearningopportunitiesinsideandoutsideoftheclassroom.[175]Poverty-strickenchildrenaresubjectedtofewerstimulatingrecreationalactivities,oftenmissingoutontripstolibrariesormuseums,andareunabletoaccessatutortohelpwithproblematicacademicareas.[176] Afurtherfactorinachild'seducationalattainmentinvolvestheschoolenvironment,morespecificallyteacherexpectationsandattitudes.[177]Ithasbeenarguedthatteachersperceivelow-SESchildrenasbeinglessacademicallyableandassuchprovidethemwithlessattentionandreinforcement.[177]Ontheotherhand,ithasbeenfoundthatwhenschoolsmakeanefforttoincreasesfamilyandschoolinvolvement,childrenperformbetteronstatetests.[178] Parasites[edit] DiarrheacausedbytheparasiticdiseaseGiardiasisisassociatedwithlowerIQ.[179]Parasiticworms(helminths)areassociatedwithnutritionaldeficienciesthatareknowntobearisktochilddevelopment.[180]Inparticular,intestinalparasitismbeingoneofthemostneglectedtropicaldiseasesinthedevelopedworld.Harboringofthisparasitecouldadverseseveralhealthimplicationsinchildrenaffectingchildhooddevelopmentandmorbidity.Prolonguedexposuretofaecally-transmittedinfections(FTIs),includingenvironmentalenteropathy,otherintestinalinfections,andparasitesduringearlychildhoodcanleadtoirreversiblestunting.[181]Reducingtheprevalenceoftheparasitecanbeabenefitinchildgrowth,development,andeducationaloutcome.[182] Poisoning[edit] Highlevelsofleadinthebloodisassociatedwithattentiondeficits,[183]whilearsenicpoisoninghasanegativeeffectonverbalandfullIntelligenceQuotientIQ.[183]ManganesepoisoningduetolevelsindrinkingwaterisalsoassociatedwithareducedIQof6.2pointsbetweenthehighestandlowestlevelofpoisoning.[184] Prenatalexposuretovariouspesticidesincludingorganophosphates,[185]andchlorpyrifos[186]hasalsobeenlinkedtoreducedIQscore.Organophosphateshavebeenspecificallylinkedtopoorerworkingmemory,verbalcomprehension,perceptualreasoningandprocessingspeed.[185] Other[edit] Cognitivedevelopmentisrelatedtochildhoodexposuretoviolenceandtrauma,includingspousalabusebetweentheparentsandsexualabuse.[187][188] Intrauterinegrowthretardationisassociatedwithlearningdeficitsinchildhood,andassuch,isrelatedtolowerIQ.[189] Neglect[edit] Whenachildisunabletomeettheirdevelopmentalgoals,becausetheyhavenotbeenprovidedwiththecorrectamountofcare,stimulationornutritionthissituationiscommonlyreferredtoaschildneglect.Itisthemostwidespreadformofchildabuse.Neglectaccountedfor78%ofallchildabusecasesintheUnitedStatesin2010alone.Scientificstudiesshowthatexposuretochildneglectcanhavelifelongconsequencesforchildren.[190] Assessingandidentifying[edit] Assessingandidentifyingneglectposeanumberofchallengesforpractitioners.Giventhatneglectisadynamicbetweenthechild'sdevelopmentandlevelsofnurturance,thequestioninidentifyingneglect,becomesoneofwheredoyoustart,withthechild'sdevelopmentorwiththelevelsofnurturance? Developmentfocusedmethods[edit] Someprofessionalsidentifyneglectbymeasuringthedevelopmentallevelsofachild,forifthosedevelopmentallevelsarenormal,onecan,bydefinition,concludethatachildisnotbeingneglected.Areasofdevelopmentthatcouldbemeasuredincludeweight,height,stamina,social&emotionalresponses,speechandmotordevelopment.Allthesefeaturesgouptomakeamedicalassessmentofwhetherachildisthriving,sothataprofessionallookingtostartanassessmentofneglect,mightreasonablystartwithinformationcollectedbyadoctor.Infantsareoftenweighedandmeasuredwhenseenbytheirphysiciansforwell-babycheck-ups.Thephysicianinitiatesamorecompleteevaluationwhentheinfant'sdevelopmentandfunctioningarefoundtobedelayed.Whatthissuggestsisthatsocialworkstaffcouldconsultmedicalnotestoestablishifthebabyorchildisfailingtothrive,asafirststepinapathwaytowardsidentifyingneglect.Ifdevelopmentallevelsaresubnormal,thentheidentificationofneglectthenrequirestheprofessionalestablishifthosesubnormallevelsofdevelopmentcanbeputdowntothelevelofnurturanceexperiencedbythechild.Oneneedstodiscountthatthedevelopmentaldelaywascausedbysomegeneticconditionordisease,whichdonothavetheirbasisinalackofnurturance. Startingtheassessment[edit] Anotherwayofstartingaprocessforidentifyingneglectistoidentifyifthechildinquestionisexperiencingalevelofnurturancelowerthanthatconsiderednecessarytosupportnormaldevelopment.[191]Inpartthisrequiresaknowledgeofthelevelofnurturancerequiredbythechildtosustainnormaldevelopment,whichmightbeparticulartohisorherage,genderandotherfactors.[191]Howeverquitehowoneascertainswhataparticularchildneeds,withoutreferringbacktotheirlevelofdevelopment,isnotsomethingtheoryandpolicyonneglectisclearabout.Furthermore,ascertainingwhetherachildisgettingtherequisitelevelofnurturanceneedstotakeintoaccountnotjusttheintensityofthenurturance,butalso,giventhattheintensityofcertainformsofnurturancecanvaryacrosstime,thedurationandfrequencyofthenurturance.Itisacceptableforachildtoexperiencevaryingandlowlevelsofcertaintypesofnurturanceacrossadayandfromtimetotime,however,thelevelsofnurturanceshouldnevercrossthresholdsofintensity,durationandfrequency.Forthisreason,professionalsaremindedtokeepdetailedhistoriesofcareprovision,whichdemonstratethedurationtowhichthechildisexposedtoperiodsofsubnormalexposuretocare,stimulation,andnutrition. Startingtheassessment[edit] Itismostcommonforguidancetosuggestprofessionalsshouldfocusonthelevelsofnurturanceprovidedbythecarersofthechild,whereneglectisunderstoodasanissueoftheparents'behaviourtowardsthechild.[192]Someauthorsfeelthatestablishingthefailureofparentsandcaregiverstoprovidecarewouldbesufficienttoconcludethatneglectwasoccurring.[193]ActionforChildren[194]statethat,"Achildexperiencesneglectwhentheadultswholookafterthemfailtomeettheirneeds"clearlydefiningneglectasamatterofparentalperformance.Thisraisesthequestionaboutwhatlevelofnurturance,acarerorparentneedstofallunder,toprovokedevelopmentaldelay,andhowonegoesaboutmeasuringthataccurately. Themethod,whichfocusesonthestimulationprovidedbythecarer,canbesubjecttocritique.Neglectisaboutthechild'sdevelopmentbeingadverselyaffectedbythelevelsofnurturance,butthecarers'provisionofnurturanceisnotalwaysagoodindicatorofthelevelofnurturancereceivedbythechild.Neglectmaybeoccurringatschool,outsideofparentalcare.Thechildmaybereceivingnurturancefromsiblingsorthroughaboardingschooleducation,whichcompensatesforthelackofnurturanceprovidedbytheparents. Linkingtostimulation[edit] Neglectisaprocesswherebychildrenexperiencedevelopmentaldelayowingtoexperiencinginsufficientlevelsofnurturance.Ithasbeenarguedthatinprinciple,thismeansthatwhenstartinganassessmentofneglectbyidentifyingdevelopmentaldelayoneneedstothencheckthelevelsofnurturancereceivedbythechild.Certainly,whereguidanceonidentifyingneglectdoesurgeforpractitionerstomeasuredevelopmentallevels,someguidanceurgespractitionerstofocusonhowdevelopmentallevelscanbeattributedtoparentalbehaviour.[195]However,thenarrowfocusonparentalbehaviourcanbecriticisedforunnecessarilyrulingoutthepossibleeffectofinstitutionalisedneglect,e.g.neglectatschool. Ifonestartsbyconcludingthatthelevelsofnurturereceivedbythechildareinsufficient,onethenneedstoconsiderthedevelopmentallevelsachievedbythechild. Furtherchallengesarise,however.Evenwhenonehasestablisheddevelopmentaldelayandexposuretolowlevelsofnurture,oneneedstoruleoutthepossibilitythatthelinkbetweenthetwoiscoincidental.Thedevelopmentaldelaymaybecausedbyageneticdisorder,diseaseorphysical,sexualoremotionalabuse.Thedevelopmentaldelaymaybecausedbyamixtureofunderexposuretonurture,abuse,genetics,anddisease. Practicaltoolsformeasuring[edit] TheGradedCareProfileToolisapracticetoolwhichgivesanobjectivemeasureofthequalityofcareintermsofaparent/carer'scommitment.ItwasdevelopedintheUK.[196] TheNorthCarolinaFamilyAssessmentScaleisatoolthatcanbeusedbyapractitionertoexplorewhetherneglectistakingplaceacrossarangeoffamilyfunctioningareas.[197] Interventionprogramsforaddressing[edit] Earlyinterventionprogramsandtreatmentsindevelopedcountriesincludeindividualcounselling,family,groupcounsellingandsocialsupportservices,behaviouralskillstrainingprogramstoeliminateproblematicbehaviourandteachparents"appropriate"parentingbehaviour. Parentingprograms[edit] Videointeractionguidanceisavideofeedbackinterventionthroughwhicha"guider"helpsaclienttoenhancecommunicationwithinrelationships.Theclientisguidedtoanalyseandreflectonvideoclipsoftheirowninteractions.[198][199]VideoInteractionGuidancehasbeenusedwhereconcernshavebeenexpressedoverpossibleparentalneglectincaseswherethefocuschildisaged2–12,andwherethechildisnotthesubjectofachildprotectionplan.[200] TheSafeCareprogrammeisapreventiveprogrammeworkingwithparentsofchildrenunder6yearsoldwhoareatriskofexperiencingsignificantharmthroughneglect.Theprogrammeisdeliveredinthehomebytrainedpractitioners,over18to20sessionsandfocuseson3keyareas:parent-infant/childinteraction;homesafetyandchildhealth.[201] TripleP(ParentingProgram)isapositiveparentingprogram.Itisamultilevel,parentingandfamilysupportstrategy.Theideabehinditisthatifparentsareeducatedon"proper"parentingandgiventheappropriateresources,itcouldhelpdecreasethenumberofchildneglectcases.Whendecidingwhethertoleaveachildhomealone,caregiversneedtoconsiderthechild'sphysical,mental,andemotionalwell-being,aswellasstatelawsandpoliciesregardingthisissue.[202] Seealso[edit] Psychologyportal Biologyportal Attachmenttheory Birthorder Childdevelopmentstages Childlifespecialist Childprodigy Clinicalsocialwork Criticalperiod Developmentalpsychology Developmentalpsychobiology Developmentalpsychopathology Earlychildhoodeducation Evolutionarydevelopmentalpsychology Pedagogy Play Psychoanalyticinfantobservation ChilddevelopmentinAfrica ChilddevelopmentinIndia References[edit] ^Children,NationalResearchCouncil(US)PaneltoReviewtheStatusofBasicResearchonSchool-Age;Collins,W.Andrew(1984).Introduction.NationalAcademiesPress(US). 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JollesDD,CroneEA(2012)."Trainingthedevelopingbrain:aneurocognitiveperspective".FrontHumNeurosci.6:76.doi:10.3389/fnhum.2012.00076.PMC 3321411.PMID 22509161. Mooney,CarolGarhart(2000).TheoriesofChildhood:anIntroductiontoDewey,Montessori,Erikson,Piaget&Vygotsky.RedleafPress.ISBN 978-1-884834-85-1. Poulin-DuboisD,BrookerI,ChowV(2009)."Thedevelopmentaloriginsofnaïvepsychologyininfancy".AdvancesinChildDevelopmentandBehaviorVolume37.AdvChildDevBehav.AdvancesinChildDevelopmentandBehavior.Vol. 37.pp. 55–104.doi:10.1016/S0065-2407(09)03702-1.ISBN 9780123744708.PMID 19673160. StilesJ,JerniganTL(2010)."Thebasicsofbraindevelopment".NeuropsycholRev.20(4):327–48.doi:10.1007/s11065-010-9148-4.PMC 2989000.PMID 21042938. TauGZ,PetersonBS(January2010)."Normaldevelopmentofbraincircuits".Neuropsychopharmacology.35(1):147–68.doi:10.1038/npp.2009.115.PMC 3055433.PMID 19794405. VannestJ,KarunanayakaPR,SchmithorstVJ,SzaflarskiJP,HollandSK(May2009)."Languagenetworksinchildren:evidencefromfunctionalMRIstudies".AJRAmJRoentgenol.192(5):1190–6.doi:10.2214/AJR.08.2246.PMC 2791163.PMID 19380541. Externallinks[edit] WikimediaCommonshasmediarelatedtoChilddevelopment. ChilddevelopmentCentersforDiseaseControlandPrevention ThescienceofearlychildhoodHarvardUniversityCenterontheDevelopingChild WorldAssociationforInfantMentalHealthArchived2009-01-30attheWaybackMachine vteDevelopmentofthehumanbodyBeforebirth Development Zygote Embryo Fetus Gestationalage Birthandafter Birth Childdevelopment stages early Puberty Adultdevelopment Ageing Senescence Death Phases Earlyyears Infant Toddler Earlychildhood Childhood Child Youth Preadolescence Adolescence Emergingadulthood Adulthood Youngadult Middleadult Elderadult Socialandlegal Minor Ageofmajority vteMentaldisorders (Classification)AdultpersonalityandbehaviorSexual Ego-dystonicsexualorientation Paraphilia Fetishism Voyeurism Sexualmaturationdisorder Sexualrelationshipdisorder Other Factitiousdisorder Munchausensyndrome Genderdysphoria Intermittentexplosivedisorder Dermatillomania Kleptomania Pyromania Trichotillomania Personalitydisorder ChildhoodandlearningEmotionalandbehavioral ADHD Conductdisorder ODD 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Parentalresponsibility Paternity Sharedparenting Experts MaryAinsworth JohnBowlby T.BerryBrazelton RudolfDreikurs DavidElkind JoFrost HaimGinott ThomasGordon AlanE.Kazdin TrubyKing AnnetteLareau PenelopeLeach WilliamSears B.F.Skinner BenjaminSpock Organizations FamiliesNeedFathers MothersApartfromTheirChildren Mothers'Union NationalChildbirthTrust NationalFatherhoodInitiative NationalParentsOrganization Parent–teacherassociation ParentsAgainstChildSexualExploitation AuthoritycontrolNationallibraries Israel UnitedStates Japan CzechRepublic Other FacetedApplicationofSubjectTerminology NationalArchives(US) LibraryresourcesaboutChilddevelopment Onlinebooks Resourcesinyourlibrary Resourcesinotherlibraries Retrievedfrom"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Child_development&oldid=1115950781" 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