Poverty - Wikipedia

Global prevalence Poverty FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia Jumptonavigation Jumptosearch Stateoflackingacertainamountofmaterialpossessionsormoney "Poor"redirectshere.Forotheruses,seePoor(disambiguation)andPoverty(disambiguation). Thisarticleneedstobeupdated.Pleasehelpupdatethisarticletoreflectrecenteventsornewlyavailableinformation.(July2020) Clockwisefromtop-left:ahomelessmaninToronto,Canada;adisabledmanbegginginthestreetsofBeijing,China;wastepickersinLucknow,India;amotherwithhermalnourishedchildinaclinicnearDadaab,Kenya Povertyisthestateofhavingfewmaterialpossessionsorlittleincome.Povertycanhavediversesocial,economic,andpoliticalcausesandeffects.[1]Whenevaluatingpovertyinstatisticsoreconomicstherearetwomainmeasures:Absolutepovertymeasurescompareincomeagainsttheamountneededtomeetbasicpersonalneeds,suchasfood,clothing,andshelter.[2]Relativepovertymeasureswhenapersoncannotmeetaminimumleveloflivingstandards,comparedtoothersinthesametimeandplace.Thusrelativepovertyisdefinedvariesfromonecountrytoanother,orfromonesocietytoanother.[2] Statistically,asof2019,mostpeopleontheplanetliveinpoverty:(inPurchasingPowerParitydollars)85%liveonlessthan$30perday,two-thirdsliveonlessthan$10perday,and10%liveonlessthan$1.90perday(extremepoverty).[3]AccordingtotheWorldBankGroupin2020,morethan40percentofthepoorliveinconflict-affectedcountries.[4]Evenwhencountriesexperienceeconomicdevelopment,thepoorestcitizensofmiddle-incomecountriesfrequentlydonotgainanadequateshareoftheircountries'increasedwealthtoleavepoverty.[5]Governmentsandnon-governmentalorganizationshaveexperimentedwithanumberofdifferentpoliciesandprogramsforpovertyalleviation,suchaselectrificationinruralareasorhousingfirstpoliciesinurbanareas.TheinternationalpolicyframeworksforpovertyalleviationaresummarizedinSustainableDevelopmentGoal1:"NoPoverty". Socialforces,suchasagender,disabilityorraceorethnicity,canexacerbateissuesofpoverty—withwomen,childrenandminoritiesfrequentlybearingunequalburdensofpoverty.Moreover,impoverishedindividualsaremorevulnerabletotheeffectsofothersocialissues,suchastheenvironmentaleffectsofindustryortheimpactsofclimatechangeorothernaturaldisastersorextremeweatherevents.Povertycanalsomakeothersocialproblemsworse,economicpressuresonimpoverishedcommunitiesfrequentlyplayapartindeforestation,biodiversitylossandethnicconflict.Forthisreason,theSustainableDevelopmentGoalsandotherinternationalpolicyprograms,suchastheinternationalrecoveryfromCOVID-19,emphasizetheconnectionofpovertyalleviationwithothersocietalgoals.[6] Contents 1Definitionsandetymology 2Measuringpoverty 2.1Absolutepoverty 2.2Relativepoverty 2.3Otheraspects 2.3.1Secondarypoverty 2.4Variability 2.5Globalprevalence 3Characteristics 3.1Health 3.1.1Hunger 3.1.2Mentalhealth 3.2Education 3.3Shelter 3.4Utilities 3.4.1Waterandsanitation 3.4.2Energy 3.5Prejudiceandexploitation 4Povertyreduction 4.1Increasingthesupplyofbasicneeds 4.1.1Foodandothergoods 4.1.2Healthcareandeducation 4.1.3Housing 4.1.4Removingconstraintsongovernmentservices 4.1.5Reversingbraindrain 4.1.6Familyplanninganddemographictransition 4.2Increasingpersonalincome 4.2.1Incomegrants 4.2.2Economicfreedoms 4.2.3Financialservices 5Perspectives 5.1Economictheories 5.2Children 5.3Disability 5.4Gender 5.5Environmentalism 5.6Voluntarypoverty 6Chartsandtables 7Seealso 8References 8.1Citations 8.2Sources 9Furtherreading 10Externallinks Definitionsandetymology[edit] Thewordpovertycomesfromtheold(Norman)Frenchwordpoverté(ModernFrench:pauvreté),fromLatinpaupertāsfrompauper(poor).[7] Thereareseveraldefinitionsofpovertydependingonthecontextofthesituationitisplacedin,andusuallyreferencesastateorconditioninwhichapersonorcommunitylacksthefinancialresourcesandessentialsforacertainstandardofliving. UnitedNations:Fundamentally,povertyisadenialofchoicesandopportunities,aviolationofhumandignity.Itmeanslackofbasiccapacitytoparticipateeffectivelyinsociety.Itmeansnothavingenoughtofeedandclotheafamily,nothavingaschoolorclinictogoto,nothavingthelandonwhichtogrowone'sfoodorajobtoearnone'sliving,nothavingaccesstocredit.Itmeansinsecurity,powerlessnessandexclusionofindividuals,householdsandcommunities.Itmeanssusceptibilitytoviolence,anditoftenimplieslivinginmarginalorfragileenvironments,withoutaccesstocleanwaterorsanitation.[8] WorldBank:Povertyispronounceddeprivationinwell-being,andcomprisesmanydimensions.Itincludeslowincomesandtheinabilitytoacquirethebasicgoodsandservicesnecessaryforsurvivalwithdignity.Povertyalsoencompasseslowlevelsofhealthandeducation,pooraccesstocleanwaterandsanitation,inadequatephysicalsecurity,lackofvoice,andinsufficientcapacityandopportunitytobetterone'slife.[9] EuropeanUnion(EU):TheEuropeanUnion'sdefinitionofpovertyissignificantlydifferentfromdefinitionsinotherpartsoftheworld,andconsequentlypolicymeasuresintroducedtocombatpovertyinEUcountriesalsodifferfrommeasuresinothernations.Povertyismeasuredinrelationtothedistributionofincomeineachmembercountryusingrelativeincomepovertylines.[10]Relative-incomepovertyratesintheEUarecompiledbytheEurostat,inchargeofcoordinating,gathering,anddisseminatingmembercountrystatisticsusingEuropeanUnionSurveyofIncomeandLivingConditions(EU-SILC)surveys.[10] Measuringpoverty[edit] Seealso:Listofcountriesbypercentageofpopulationlivinginpoverty,Povertythreshold,andIndividualDeprivationMeasure ChildrenoftheDepression-eramigrantworkers,Arizona,UnitedStates,1937 Absolutepoverty[edit] Mainarticle:Extremepoverty Seealso:PurchasingpowerandAssetpoverty Absolutepoverty,oftensynonymouswith'extremepoverty'or'abjectpoverty',referstoasetstandardwhichisconsistentovertimeandbetweencountries.Thissetstandardusuallyrefersto"aconditioncharacterizedbyseveredeprivationofbasichumanneeds,includingfood,safedrinkingwater,sanitationfacilities,health,shelter,educationandinformation.Itdependsnotonlyonincomebutalsoonaccesstoservices."[11][12][13] The"dollaraday"povertylinewasfirstintroducedin1990asameasuretomeetsuchstandardsofliving.FornationsthatdonotusetheUSdollarascurrency,"dollaraday"doesnottranslatetolivingadayontheequivalentamountoflocalcurrencyasdeterminedbytheexchangerate.[14]Rather,itisdeterminedbythepurchasingpowerparityrate,whichwouldlookathowmuchlocalcurrencyisneededtobuythesamethingsthatadollarcouldbuyintheUnitedStates.[14]Usually,thiswouldtranslatetohavinglesslocalcurrencythaniftheexchangeratewasusedastheUnitedStatesisarelativelymoreexpensivecountry.[14] From1993through2005,theWorldBankdefinedabsolutepovertyas$1.08adayonsuchapurchasingpowerparitybasis,afteradjustingforinflationtothe1993USdollar[15]andin2008,itwasupdatedas$1.25aday(equivalentto$1.00adayin1996USprices)[16][17]andin2015,itwasupdatedaslivingonlessthanUS$1.90perday,[18]andmoderatepovertyaslessthan$2or$5aday.[19]Similarly,'ultra-poverty'isdefinedbya2007reportissuedbyInternationalFoodPolicyResearchInstituteaslivingonlessthan54centsperday.[20]Thepovertylinethresholdof$1.90perday,assetbytheWorldBank,iscontroversial.Eachnationhasitsownthresholdforabsolutepovertyline;intheUnitedStates,forexample,theabsolutepovertylinewasUS$15.15perdayin2010(US$22,000peryearforafamilyoffour),[21]whileinIndiaitwasUS$1.0perday[22]andinChinatheabsolutepovertylinewasUS$0.55perday,eachonPPPbasisin2010.[23]Thesedifferentpovertylinesmakedatacomparisonbetweeneachnation'sofficialreportsqualitativelydifficult.SomescholarsarguethattheWorldBankmethodsetsthebartoohigh,othersargueitistoolow. Thereisdisagreementamongexpertsastowhatwouldbeconsideredarealisticpovertyratewithoneconsideringit"aninaccuratelymeasuredandarbitrarycutoff".[24]Somecontendthatahigherpovertylineisneeded,suchasaminimumof$7.40oreven$10to$15aday.Theyarguethattheselevelswouldbetterreflectthecostofbasicneedsandnormallifeexpectancy.[25] OneestimateplacesthetruescaleofpovertymuchhigherthantheWorldBank,withanestimated4.3billionpeople(59%oftheworld'spopulation)livingwithlessthan$5adayandunabletomeetbasicneedsadequately.[26]PhilipAlston,aUNspecialrapporteuronextremepovertyandhumanrights,statedtheWorldBank'sinternationalpovertylineof$1.90adayisfundamentallyflawed,andhasallowedfor"selfcongratulatory"triumphalisminthefightagainstextremeglobalpoverty,whichheassertsis"completelyofftrack"andthatnearlyhalfoftheglobalpopulation,or3.4billion,livesonlessthan$5.50aday,andthisnumberhasbarelymovedsince1990.[27]Stillotherssuggestthatpovertylinemisleadsasitmeasureseveryonebelowthepovertylinethesame,wheninrealitysomeonelivingon$1.20perdayisinadifferentstateofpovertythansomeonelivingon$0.20perday.[22][28][29] Othermeasuresofabsolutepovertywithoutusingacertaindollaramountincludethestandarddefinedasreceivinglessthan80%ofminimumcaloricintakewhilstspendingmorethan80%ofincomeonfood,sometimescalledultra-poverty.[30] Relativepoverty[edit] Seealso:Relativedeprivation,Economicinequality,andWealthconcentration GraphicalrepresentationoftheGinicoefficientTheGinicoefficient,acommonmeasureofinequality,isequaltotheareamarkedAdividedbythesumoftheareasmarkedAandB,thatis,Gini=A/(A+B). Relativepovertyviewspovertyassociallydefinedanddependentonsocialcontext.Itisarguedthattheneedsconsideredfundamentalisnotanobjectivemeasure[31][32]andcouldchangewiththecustomofsociety.[33][31]Forexample,apersonwhocannotaffordhousingbetterthanasmalltentinanopenfieldwouldbesaidtoliveinrelativepovertyifalmosteveryoneelseinthatarealivesinmodernbrickhomes,butnotifeveryoneelsealsolivesinsmalltentsinopenfields(forexample,inanomadictribe).Sincerichernationswouldhavelowerlevelsofabsolutepoverty,[34][35]relativepovertyisconsideredthe"mostusefulmeasureforascertainingpovertyratesinwealthydevelopednations"[36][37][38][39][40]andisthe"mostprominentandmost-quotedoftheEUsocialinclusionindicators".[41] Usually,relativepovertyismeasuredasthepercentageofthepopulationwithincomelessthansomefixedproportionofmedianincome.ThisisacalculationofthepercentageofpeoplewhosefamilyhouseholdincomefallsbelowthePovertyLine.ThemainpovertylineusedintheOECDandtheEuropeanUnionisbasedon"economicdistance",alevelofincomesetat60%ofthemedianhouseholdincome.[42]TheUnitedStatesfederalgovernmenttypicallyregulatesthislinetothreetimesthecostanadequatemeal.[43] Thereareseveralotherdifferentincomeinequalitymetrics,forexample,theGinicoefficientortheTheilIndex. Globalshareofwealthbywealthgroup,CreditSuisse,2021 Globalshareofwealthbywealthgroup,CreditSuisse,2017 Otheraspects[edit] Ratherthanincome,povertyisalsomeasuredthroughindividualbasicneedsatatime.LifeexpectancyhasgreatlyincreasedinthedevelopingworldsinceWorldWarIIandisstartingtoclosethegaptothedevelopedworld.[44]Childmortalityhasdecreasedineverydevelopingregionoftheworld.[45]Theproportionoftheworld'spopulationlivingincountrieswherethedailyper-capitasupplyoffoodenergyislessthan9,200kilojoules(2,200kilocalories)decreasedfrom56%inthemid-1960stobelow10%bythe1990s.Similartrendscanbeobservedforliteracy,accesstocleanwaterandelectricityandbasicconsumeritems.[46] AnearlymorningoutsidetheOperaTaverninStockholm,withagangofbeggarswaitingfordeliveryofthescrapsfromthepreviousday.Sweden,1868. Povertymayalsobeunderstoodasanaspectofunequalsocialstatusandinequitablesocialrelationships,experiencedassocialexclusion,dependency,anddiminishedcapacitytoparticipate,ortodevelopmeaningfulconnectionswithotherpeopleinsociety.[47][48][49]Suchsocialexclusioncanbeminimizedthroughstrengthenedconnectionswiththemainstream,suchasthroughtheprovisionofrelationalcaretothosewhoareexperiencingpoverty.TheWorldBank's"VoicesofthePoor",basedonresearchwithover20,000poorpeoplein23countries,identifiesarangeoffactorswhichpoorpeopleidentifyaspartofpoverty.Theseincludeabusebythoseinpower,dis-empoweringinstitutions,excludedlocations,genderrelationships,lackofsecurity,limitedcapabilities,physicallimitations,precariouslivelihoods,problemsinsocialrelationships,weakcommunityorganizationsanddiscrimination.Analysisofsocialaspectsofpovertylinksconditionsofscarcitytoaspectsofthedistributionofresourcesandpowerinasocietyandrecognizesthatpovertymaybeafunctionofthediminished"capability"ofpeopletolivethekindsoflivestheyvalue.Thesocialaspectsofpovertymayincludelackofaccesstoinformation,education,healthcare,socialcapitalorpoliticalpower.[50][51] IntheUnitedKingdom,thesecondCameronministrycameunderattackfortheirredefinitionofpoverty;povertyisnolongerclassifiedbyafamily'sincome,butastowhetherafamilyisinworkornot.[52]Consideringthattwo-thirdsofpeoplewhofoundworkwereacceptingwagesthatarebelowthelivingwage(accordingtotheJosephRowntreeFoundation[53])thishasbeencriticisedbyanti-povertycampaignersasanunrealisticviewofpovertyintheUnitedKingdom.[52] Secondarypoverty[edit] Mainarticle:Secondarypoverty Secondarypovertyreferstothosethatearnenoughincometonotbeimpoverished,butwhospendtheirincomeonunnecessarypleasures,suchasalcoholicbeverages,thusplacingthembelowitinpractice.[54]In18th-and19th-centuryGreatBritain,thepracticeoftemperanceamongMethodists,aswellastheirrejectionofgambling,allowedthemtoeliminatesecondarypovertyandaccumulatecapital.[55] Variability[edit] Povertylevelsaresnapshotpicturesintimethatomitsthetransitionaldynamicsbetweenlevels.Mobilitystatisticssupplyadditionalinformationaboutthefractionwholeavethepovertylevel.Forexample,onestudyfindsthatinasixteen-yearperiod(1975to1991intheUS)only5%ofthoseinthelowerfifthoftheincomelevelwerestillatthatlevel,while95%transitionedtoahigherincomecategory.[56]Povertylevelscanremainthesamewhilethosewhoriseoutofpovertyarereplacedbyothers.Thetransientpoorandchronicpoordifferineachsociety.Inanine-yearperiodendingin2005fortheUS,50%ofthepoorestquintiletransitionedtoahigherquintile.[57] Globalprevalence[edit] Worldsregionsbytotalwealth(intrillionsUSD),2018 AccordingtoChenandRavallion,about1.76billionpeopleindevelopingworldlivedabove$1.25perdayand1.9billionpeoplelivedbelow$1.25perdayin1981.In2005,about4.09billionpeopleindevelopingworldlivedabove$1.25perdayand1.4billionpeoplelivedbelow$1.25perday(both1981and2005dataareoninflationadjustedbasis).[58][59]Theshareoftheworld'spopulationlivinginabsolutepovertyfellfrom43%in1981to14%in2011.[60]Theabsolutenumberofpeopleinpovertyfellfrom1.95billionin1981to1.01billionin2011.[61]TheeconomistMaxRoserestimatesthatthenumberofpeopleinpovertyisthereforeroughlythesameas200yearsago.[61]Thisisthecasesincetheworldpopulationwasjustlittlemorethan1billionin1820andthemajority(84%to94%[62])oftheworldpopulationwaslivinginpoverty.Theproportionofthedevelopingworld'spopulationlivinginextremeeconomicpovertyfellfrom28%in1990to21%in2001.[60]MostofthisimprovementhasoccurredinEastandSouthAsia.[63] In2012itwasestimatedthat,usingapovertylineof$1.25aday,1.2billionpeoplelivedinpoverty.[64]Giventhecurrenteconomicmodel,builtonGDP,itwouldtake100yearstobringtheworld'spoorestuptothepovertylineof$1.25aday.[65]UNICEFestimateshalftheworld'schildren(or1.1billion)liveinpoverty.[66]TheWorldBankforecastedin2015that702.1millionpeoplewerelivinginextremepoverty,downfrom1.75billionin1990.[67]Extremepovertyisobservedinallpartsoftheworld,includingdevelopedeconomies.[68][69]Ofthe2015population,about347.1millionpeople(35.2%)livedinSub-SaharanAfricaand231.3million(13.5%)livedinSouthAsia.AccordingtotheWorldBank,between1990and2015,thepercentageoftheworld'spopulationlivinginextremepovertyfellfrom37.1%to9.6%,fallingbelow10%forthefirsttime.[70]Duringthe2013to2015period,theWorldBankreportedthatextremepovertyfellfrom11%to10%,howevertheyalsonotedthattherateofdeclinehadslowedbynearlyhalffromthe25yearaveragewithpartsofsub-saharanAfricareturningtoearly2000levels.[71][72]TheWorldBankattributedthistoincreasingviolencefollowingtheArabSpring,populationincreasesinSub-SaharanAfrica,andgeneralAfricaninflationarypressuresandeconomicmalaiseweretheprimarydriversforthisslowdown.[73][74]ManywealthynationshaveseenanincreaseinrelativepovertyrateseversincetheGreatRecession,inparticularamongchildrenfromimpoverishedfamilieswhooftenresideinsubstandardhousingandfindeducationalopportunitiesoutofreach.[75]IthasbeenarguedbysomeacademicsthattheneoliberalpoliciespromotedbyglobalfinancialinstitutionssuchastheIMFandtheWorldBankareactuallyexacerbatingbothinequalityandpoverty.[76][77] InEastAsiatheWorldBankreportedthat"Thepovertyheadcountrateatthe$2-a-daylevelisestimatedtohavefallentoabout27percent[in2007],downfrom29.5percentin2006and69percentin1990."[78]ThePeople'sRepublicofChinaaccountsforoverthreequartersofglobalpovertyreductionfrom1990to2005.Though,asnoted,Chinaaccountedfornearlyhalfofallextremepovertyin1990.[79] InSub-SaharanAfricaextremepovertywentupfrom41%in1981to46%in2001,[80]whichcombinedwithgrowingpopulationincreasedthenumberofpeoplelivinginextremepovertyfrom231millionto318million.[81]Statisticsof2018showspopulationlivinginextremeconditionshasdeclinedbymorethan1billioninthelast25years.Asperthereportpublishedbytheworldbankon19September2018worldpovertyfallsbelow750million.[82] Intheearly1990ssomeofthetransitioneconomiesofCentralandEasternEuropeandCentralAsiaexperiencedasharpdropinincome.[83]ThecollapseoftheSovietUnionresultedinlargedeclinesinGDPpercapita,ofabout30to35%between1990andthethroughyearof1998(whenitwasatitsminimum).Asaresult,povertyratestripled,[84]excessmortalityincreased,[85]andlifeexpectancydeclined.[86]Insubsequentyearsaspercapitaincomesrecoveredthepovertyratedroppedfrom31.4%ofthepopulationto19.6%.[87][88]Theaveragepost-communistcountryhadreturnedto1989levelsofper-capitaGDPby2005,[89]althoughasof2015somearestillfarbehindthat.[90] WorldBankdatashowsthatthepercentageofthepopulationlivinginhouseholdswithconsumptionorincomeperpersonbelowthepovertylinehasdecreasedineachregionoftheworldexceptMiddleEastandNorthAfricasince1990:[91][92] Region $1perday $1.25perday[93] $1.90perday[94] 1990 2002 2004 1981 2008 1981 1990 2000 2010 2015 2018 EastAsiaandPacific 15.4% 12.3% 9.1% 77.2% 14.3% 80.2% 60.9% 34.8% 10.8% 2.1% 1.2% EuropeandCentralAsia 3.6% 1.3% 1.0% 1.9% 0.5% — — 7.3% 2.4% 1.5% 1.1% LatinAmericaandtheCaribbean 9.6% 9.1% 8.6% 11.9% 6.5% 13.7% 15.5% 12.7% 6% 3.7% 3.7% MiddleEastandNorthAfrica 2.1% 1.7% 1.5% 9.6% 2.7% — 6.5% 3.5% 2% 4.3% 7% SouthAsia 35.0% 33.4% 30.8% 61.1% 36% 58% 49.1% — 26% — — Sub-SaharanAfrica 46.1% 42.6% 41.1% 51.5% 47.5% — 54.9% 58.4% 46.6% 42.3% 40.4% World — — — 52.2% 22.4% 42.7% 36.2% 27.8% 16% 10.1% — Lifeexpectancyhasbeenincreasingandconvergingformostoftheworld.Sub-SaharanAfricahasrecentlyseenadecline,partlyrelatedtotheAIDSepidemic.Graphshowstheyears1950–2005. Characteristics[edit] Theeffectsofpovertymayalsobecausesaslistedabove,thuscreatinga"povertycycle"operatingacrossmultiplelevels,individual,local,nationalandglobal.ASomaliboyreceivingtreatmentformalnourishmentatahealthfacility Health[edit] Mainarticles:DiseasesofpovertyandDisabilityandpoverty One-thirdofdeathsaroundtheworld—some18millionpeopleayearor50,000perday—areduetopoverty-relatedcauses.Peoplelivingindevelopingnations,amongthemwomenandchildren,areoverrepresentedamongtheglobalpoorandtheseeffectsofseverepoverty.[95][96][97]Thoselivinginpovertysufferdisproportionatelyfromhungerorevenstarvationanddisease,aswellaslowerlifeexpectancy.[98][99]AccordingtotheWorldHealthOrganization,hungerandmalnutritionarethesinglegravestthreatstotheworld'spublichealthandmalnutritionisbyfarthebiggestcontributortochildmortality,presentinhalfofallcases.[100] Almost90%ofmaternaldeathsduringchildbirthoccurinAsiaandsub-SaharanAfrica,comparedtolessthan1%inthedevelopedworld.[101]Thosewholiveinpovertyhavealsobeenshowntohaveafargreaterlikelihoodofhavingorincurringadisabilitywithintheirlifetime.[102]Infectiousdiseasessuchasmalariaandtuberculosiscanperpetuatepovertybydivertinghealthandeconomicresourcesfrominvestmentandproductivity;malariadecreasesGDPgrowthbyupto1.3%insomedevelopingnationsandAIDSdecreasesAfricangrowthby0.3–1.5%annually.[103][104][105] Studieshaveshownthatpovertyimpedescognitivefunctionalthoughsomeofthesefindingscouldnotbereplicatedinfollow-upstudies.[106]Onehypothesisedmechanismisthatfinancialworriesputasevereburdenonone'smentalresourcessothattheyarenolongerfullyavailableforsolvingcomplicatedproblems.Thereducedcapabilityforproblemsolvingcanleadtosuboptimaldecisionsandfurtherperpetuatepoverty.[107]Manyotherpathwaysfrompovertytocompromisedcognitivecapacitieshavebeennoted,frompoornutritionandenvironmentaltoxinstotheeffectsofstressonparentingbehavior,allofwhichleadtosuboptimalpsychologicaldevelopment.[108][109]Neuroscientistshavedocumentedtheimpactofpovertyonbrainstructureandfunctionthroughoutthelifespan.[110] Infectiousdiseasescontinuetoblightthelivesofthepooracrosstheworld.36.8millionpeoplearelivingwithHIV/AIDS,with954,492deathsin2017.[111]Everyyearthereare350–500millioncasesofmalaria,with1millionfatalities:Africaaccountsfor90%ofmalarialdeathsandAfricanchildrenaccountforover80%ofmalariavictimsworldwide.[112] Poorpeopleoftenaremorepronetoseverediseasesduetothelackofhealthcare,andduetolivinginnon-optimalconditions.Amongthepoor,girlstendtosufferevenmoreduetogenderdiscrimination.Economicstabilityisparamountinapoorhousehold;otherwisetheygoinanendlessloopofnegativeincometryingtotreatdiseases.Oftenwhenapersoninapoorhouseholdfallsillitisuptothefamilymemberstotakecareofthemduetolimitedaccesstohealthcareandlackofhealthinsurance.Thehouseholdmembersoftenhavetogiveuptheirincomeorstopseekingfurthereducationtotendtothesickmember.Thereisagreateropportunitycostimposedonthepoortotendtosomeonecomparedtosomeonewithbetterfinancialstability.[113] Substanceabusemeansthatthepoortypicallyspendabout2%oftheirincomeeducatingtheirchildrenbutlargerpercentagesofalcoholandtobacco(forexample,6%inIndonesiaand8%inMexico).[114] Hunger[edit] Mainarticle:Hunger Seealso:Malnutrition Risesinthecostsoflivingmakepoorpeoplelessabletoafforditems.Poorpeoplespendagreaterportionoftheirbudgetsonfoodthanwealthypeople.Asaresult,poorhouseholdsandthosenearthepovertythresholdcanbeparticularlyvulnerabletoincreasesinfoodprices.Forexample,inlate2007increasesinthepriceofgrains[115]ledtofoodriotsinsomecountries.[116][117][118]TheWorldBankwarnedthat100millionpeoplewereatriskofsinkingdeeperintopoverty.[119]Threatstothesupplyoffoodmayalsobecausedbydroughtandthewatercrisis.[120]Intensivefarmingoftenleadstoaviciouscycleofexhaustionofsoilfertilityanddeclineofagriculturalyields.[121]Approximately40%oftheworld'sagriculturallandisseriouslydegraded.[122][123]InAfrica,ifcurrenttrendsofsoildegradationcontinue,thecontinentmightbeabletofeedjust25%ofitspopulationby2025,accordingtoUnitedNationsUniversity'sGhana-basedInstituteforNaturalResourcesinAfrica.[124]Everyyearnearly11millionchildrenlivinginpovertydiebeforetheirfifthbirthday.1.02billionpeoplegotobedhungryeverynight.[125]AccordingtotheGlobalHungerIndex,Sub-SaharanAfricahadthehighestchildmalnutritionrateoftheworld'sregionsoverthe2001–2006period.[126] AVenezuelaneatingfromgarbageduringthecrisisinBolivarianVenezuela Mentalhealth[edit] ApsychologicalstudyhasbeenconductedbyfourscientistsduringinauguralConventionofPsychologicalScience.Theresultsfindthatpeoplewhothrivewithfinancialstabilityorfallunderlowsocioeconomicstatus(SES)tendtoperformworsecognitivelyduetoexternalpressureimposeduponthem.Theresearchfoundthatstressorssuchaslowincome,inadequatehealthcare,discrimination,andexposuretocriminalactivitiesallcontributetomentaldisorders.Thisstudyalsofoundthatchildrenexposedtopoverty-strickenenvironmentshaveslowercognitivethinking.[127]Itisseenthatchildrenperformbetterunderthecareoftheirparentsandthatchildrentendtoadoptspeakinglanguageatayoungerage.Sincebeinginpovertyfromchildhoodismoreharmfulthanitisforanadult,itisseenthatchildreninpoorhouseholdstendtofallbehindincertaincognitiveabilitiescomparedtootheraveragefamilies.[128] Forachildtogrowupemotionallyhealthy,thechildrenunderthreeneed"Astrong,reliableprimarycaregiverwhoprovidesconsistentandunconditionallove,guidance,andsupport.Safe,predictable,stableenvironments.Tento20hourseachweekofharmonious,reciprocalinteractions.Thisprocess,knownasattunement,ismostcrucialduringthefirst6–24monthsofinfants'livesandhelpsthemdevelopawiderrangeofhealthyemotions,includinggratitude,forgiveness,andempathy.Enrichmentthroughpersonalized,increasinglycomplexactivities".[citationneeded]Inonesurvey,67%ofchildrenfromdisadvantagedinnercitiessaidtheyhadwitnessedaseriousassault,and33%reportedwitnessingahomicide.[129]51%offifthgradersfromNewOrleans(medianincomeforahousehold:$27,133)havebeenfoundtobevictimsofviolence,comparedto32%inWashington,DC(meanincomeforahousehold:$40,127).[130]Studieshaveshownthatpovertychangesthepersonalitiesofchildrenwholiveinit.TheGreatSmokyMountainsStudywasaten-yearstudythatwasabletodemonstratethis.Duringthestudy,aboutone-quarterofthefamiliessawadramaticandunexpectedincreaseinincome.Thestudyshowedthatamongthesechildren,instancesofbehavioralandemotionaldisordersdecreased,andconscientiousnessandagreeablenessincreased.[131] Education[edit] Seealso:Socialdeterminantsofhealthinpoverty§ Education,andDisabilityandpoverty§ Education Researchhasfoundthatthereisahighriskofeducationalunderachievementforchildrenwhoarefromlow-incomehousingcircumstances.Thisisoftenaprocessthatbeginsinprimaryschool.InstructionintheUSeducationalsystem,aswellasinmostothercountries,tendstobegearedtowardsthosestudentswhocomefrommoreadvantagedbackgrounds.Asaresult,childreninpovertyareatahigherriskthanadvantagedchildrenforretentionintheirgrade,specialdeleteriousplacementsduringtheschool'shoursandnotcompletingtheirhighschooleducation.[132]Advantagebreedsadvantage.[133]Therearemanyexplanationsforwhystudentstendtodropoutofschool.Oneistheconditionsinwhichtheyattendschool.Schoolsinpoverty-strickenareashaveconditionsthathinderchildrenfromlearninginasafeenvironment.Researchershavedevelopedanameforareaslikethis:anurbanwarzoneisapoor,crime-ladendistrictinwhichdeteriorated,violent,evenwarlikeconditionsandunderfunded,largelyineffectiveschoolspromoteinferioracademicperformance,includingirregularattendanceanddisruptiveornon-compliantclassroombehavior.[134]Becauseofpoverty,"Studentsfromlow-incomefamiliesare2.4timesmorelikelytodropoutthanmiddle-incomekids,andover10timesmorelikelythanhigh-incomepeerstodropout."[135] Forchildrenwithlowresources,theriskfactorsaresimilartootherssuchasjuveniledelinquencyrates,higherlevelsofteenagepregnancy,andeconomicdependencyupontheirlow-incomeparentorparents.[132] Familiesandsocietywhosubmitlowlevelsofinvestmentintheeducationanddevelopmentoflessfortunatechildrenendupwithlessfavorableresultsforthechildrenwhoseealifeofparentalemploymentreductionandlowwages.Higherratesofearlychildbearingwithalltheconnectedriskstofamily,healthandwell-beingaremajorissuestoaddresssinceeducationfrompreschooltohighschoolisidentifiablymeaningfulinalife.[132] Outofschoolchild Povertyoftendrasticallyaffectschildren'ssuccessinschool.Achild's"homeactivities,preferences,mannerisms"mustalignwiththeworldandinthecasesthattheydonotdothese,studentsareatadisadvantageintheschooland,mostimportantly,theclassroom.[136]Therefore,itissafetostatethatchildrenwholiveatorbelowthepovertylevelwillhavefarlesssuccesseducationallythanchildrenwholiveabovethepovertyline.Poorchildrenhaveagreatdeallesshealthcareandthisultimatelyresultsinmanyabsencesfromschool.Additionally,poorchildrenaremuchmorelikelytosufferfromhunger,fatigue,irritability,headaches,earinfections,flu,andcolds.[136]Theseillnessescouldpotentiallyrestrictastudent'sfocusandconcentration.[137] Ingeneral,theinteractionofgenderwithpovertyorlocationtendstoworktothedisadvantageofgirlsinpoorercountrieswithlowcompletionratesandsocialexpectationsthattheymarryearly,andtothedisadvantageofboysinrichercountrieswithhighcompletionratesbutsocialexpectationsthattheyenterthelabourforceearly.[138]Attheprimaryeducationlevel,mostcountrieswithacompletionratebelow60%exhibitgenderdisparityatgirls'expense,particularlypoorandruralgirls.InMauritania,theadjustedgenderparityindexis0.86onaverage,butonly0.63forthepoorest20%,whilethereisparityamongtherichest20%.Incountrieswithcompletionratesbetween60%and80%,genderdisparityisgenerallysmaller,butdisparityattheexpenseofpoorgirlsisespeciallymarkedinCameroon,NigeriaandYemen.Exceptionsintheoppositedirectionareobservedincountrieswithpastoralisteconomiesthatrelyonboys'labour,suchastheKingdomofEswatini,LesothoandNamibia.[138] Shelter[edit] StreetchildinBangladesh.Aidingrelativesfinanciallyunabletobutwillingtotakeinorphansisfoundtobemoreeffectivebycostandwelfarethanorphanages.[139] Seealso:Slums,Streetchildren,Orphanages,andGentrification HomelessfamilyinKolkata,India DilapidatedalleyandbuildingsatthelowertownofTallinninMay1996 Thegeographicconcentrationofpovertyisarguedtobeafactorinentrenchingpoverty.WilliamJ.Wilson's"concentrationandisolation"hypothesisstatesthattheeconomicdifficultiesoftheverypoorestAfricanAmericansarecompoundedbythefactthatasthebetter-offAfricanAmericansmoveout,thepoorestaremoreandmoreconcentrated,havingonlyotherverypoorpeopleasneighbors.Thisconcentrationcausessocialisolation,Wilsonsuggests,becausetheverypoorarenowisolatedfromaccesstothejobnetworks,rolemodels,institutions,andotherconnectionsthatmighthelpthemescapepoverty.[140]Gentrificationmeansconvertinganagingneighborhoodintoamoreaffluentone,asbyremodelinghomes.However,landlordsthenincreaserentonnewlyrenovatedrealestate;thepoorpeoplecannotaffordtopayhighrent,andmayneedtoleavetheirneighborhoodtofindaffordablehousing.[141]However,thepooralsogetmoreaccesstoincomeandservices,whilestudiessuggestpoorresidentslivingingentrifyingneighbourhoodsareactuallylesslikelytomovethanpoorresidentsofnon-gentrifyingareas.[142] Povertyincreasestheriskofhomelessness.[143]Slum-dwellers,whomakeupathirdoftheworld'surbanpopulation,liveinapovertynobetter,ifnotworse,thanruralpeople,whoarethetraditionalfocusofthepovertyinthedevelopingworld,accordingtoareportbytheUnitedNations.[144] Thereareover100millionstreetchildrenworldwide.[145]Mostofthechildrenlivingininstitutionsaroundtheworldhaveasurvivingparentorcloserelative,andtheymostcommonlyenteredorphanagesbecauseofpoverty.[139]Itisspeculatedthat,flushwithmoney,profit-drivenorphanagesareincreasingandpushforchildrentojoineventhoughdemographicdatashowthateventhepoorestextendedfamiliesusuallytakeinchildrenwhoseparentshavedied.[139]Manychildadvocatesmaintainthatthiscanharmchildren'sdevelopmentbyseparatingthemfromtheirfamiliesandthatitwouldbemoreeffectiveandcheapertoaidcloserelativeswhowanttotakeintheorphans.[139] Utilities[edit] AffordablehouseholdtoiletsnearJaipur,Rajasthan Waterandsanitation[edit] Asof2012,2.5billionpeoplelackaccesstosanitationservicesand15%practiceopendefecation.[146]ThemostnoteworthyexampleisBangladesh,whichhadhalftheGDPpercapitaofIndiabuthasalowermortalityfromdiarrheathanIndiaortheworldaverage,withdiarrheadeathsdecliningby90%sincethe1990s.Evenwhileprovidinglatrinesisachallenge,peoplestilldonotusethemevenwhenavailable.Bystrategicallyprovidingpitlatrinestothepoorest,charitiesinBangladeshsparkedaculturalchangeasthosebetteroffperceiveditasanissueofstatustonotuseone.Thevastmajorityofthelatrinesbuiltwerethennotfromcharitiesbutbyvillagersthemselves.[147] Waterutilitysubsidiestendtosubsidizewaterconsumptionbythoseconnectedtothesupplygrid,whichistypicallyskewedtowardsthericherandurbansegmentofthepopulationandthoseoutsideinformalhousing.Asaresultofheavyconsumptionsubsidies,thepriceofwaterdecreasestotheextentthatonly30%,onaverage,ofthesupplyingcostsindevelopingcountriesiscovered.[148][149] Thisresultsinalackofincentivetomaintaindeliverysystems,leadingtolossesfromleaksannuallythatareenoughfor200millionpeople.[148][150] Thisalsoleadstoalackofincentivetoinvestinexpandingthenetwork,resultinginmuchofthepoorpopulationbeingunconnectedtothenetwork.Instead,thepoorbuywaterfromwatervendorsfor,onaverage,about5to16timesthemeteredprice.[148][151]However,subsidiesforlayingnewconnectionstothenetworkratherthanforconsumptionhaveshownmorepromiseforthepoor.[149] Energy[edit] ThissectionisanexcerptfromEnergypoverty.[edit] Energypovertyislackofaccesstomodernenergyservices.Itreferstothesituationoflargenumbersofpeopleindevelopingcountriesandsomepeopleindevelopedcountrieswhosewell-beingisnegativelyaffectedbyverylowconsumptionofenergy,useofdirtyorpollutingfuels,andexcessivetimespentcollectingfueltomeetbasicneeds.Itisinverselyrelatedtoaccesstomodernenergyservices,althoughimprovingaccessisonlyonefactorineffortstoreduceenergypoverty.Energypovertyisdistinctfromfuelpoverty,whichfocusessolelyontheissueofaffordability. AccordingtotheEnergyPovertyActioninitiativeoftheWorldEconomicForum,"Accesstoenergyisfundamentaltoimprovingqualityoflifeandisakeyimperativeforeconomicdevelopment.Inthedevelopingworld,energypovertyisstillrife.Nearly1.1billionpeoplestillhavenoaccesstoelectricity,accordingtotheInternationalEnergyAgency(IEA)[152]".Asaresultofthissituation,anewUNinitiativehasbeenlaunchedtocoincidewiththedesignationof2012astheInternationalYearforSustainableEnergyforAll,whichhasamajorfocusonreducingenergypoverty.Theurbanpoorbuywaterfromwatervendorsfor,onaverage,about5to16timesthemeteredprice.[148] Prejudiceandexploitation[edit] Culturalfactors,suchasdiscriminationofvariouskinds,cannegativelyaffectproductivitysuchasagediscrimination,stereotyping,[153]discriminationagainstpeoplewithphysicaldisability,[154]genderdiscrimination,racialdiscrimination,andcastediscrimination.Womenarethegroupsufferingfromthehighestrateofpovertyafterchildren;14.5%ofwomenand22%ofchildrenarepoorintheUnitedStates.Inaddition,thefactthatwomenaremorelikelytobecaregivers,regardlessofincomelevel,toeitherthegenerationsbeforeorafterthem,exacerbatestheburdensoftheirpoverty.[155] MaxWeberandsomeschoolsofmodernizationtheorysuggestthatculturalvaluescouldaffecteconomicsuccess.[156][157]However,researchers[who?]havegatheredevidencethatsuggestthatvaluesarenotasdeeplyingrainedandthatchangingeconomicopportunitiesexplainmostofthemovementintoandoutofpoverty,asopposedtoshiftsinvalues.[158]A2018reportonpovertyintheUnitedStatesbyUNspecialrapporteurPhilipAlstonassertsthatcaricaturednarrativesabouttherichandthepoor(that"therichareindustrious,entrepreneurial,patrioticandthedriversofeconomicsuccess"while"thepoorarewasters,losersandscammers")arelargelyinaccurate,as"thepoorareoverwhelminglythosebornintopoverty,orthosethrusttherebycircumstanceslargelybeyondtheircontrol,suchasphysicalormentaldisabilities,divorce,familybreakdown,illness,oldage,unlivablewagesordiscriminationinthejobmarket."[159]Societalperceptionofpeopleexperiencingeconomicdifficultyhashistoricallyappearedasaconceptualdichotomy:the"good"poor(peoplewhoarephysicallyimpaired,disabled,the"illandincurable,"theelderly,pregnantwomen,children)vs.the"bad"poor(able-bodied,"valid"adults,mostoftenmale).[160] Accordingtoexperts,manywomenbecomevictimsoftrafficking,themostcommonformofwhichisprostitution,asameansofsurvivalandeconomicdesperation.[161]Deteriorationoflivingconditionscanoftencompelchildrentoabandonschooltocontributetothefamilyincome,puttingthematriskofbeingexploited.[162]Forexample,inZimbabwe,anumberofgirlsareturningtosexinreturnforfoodtosurvivebecauseoftheincreasingpoverty.[163]Accordingtostudies,aspovertydecreasestherewillbefewerandfewerinstancesofviolence.[164] Povertyreduction[edit] Mainarticle:Povertyreduction Seealso:AidandDevelopmentaid LogooftheSustainableDevelopmentGoal1oftheUnitedNations,to"endpovertyinallitsforms,everywhere"by2030[165] Variouspovertyreductionstrategiesarebroadlycategorizedbasedonwhethertheymakemoreofthebasichumanneedsavailableorwhethertheyincreasethedisposableincomeneededtopurchasethoseneeds.[166]Somestrategiessuchasbuildingroadscanbothbringaccesstovariousbasicneeds,suchasfertilizerorhealthcarefromurbanareas,aswellasincreaseincomes,bybringingbetteraccesstourbanmarkets. In2015allUNMemberStatesadoptedthe17SustainableDevelopmentGoalsaspartofthe2030Agendaforsustainabledevelopment.Goal1isto"endpovertyinallitsformseverywhere".[167]Itaimstoeliminateextremepovertyforallpeoplemeasuredbydailywageslessthan$1.25andatleasthalfthetotalnumberofmen,women,andchildrenlivinginpoverty.Inaddition,socialprotectionsystemsmustbeestablishedatthenationallevelandequalaccesstoeconomicresourcesmustbeensured.[168]Strategieshavetobedevelopedatthenational,regionalandinternationallevelstosupporttheeradicationofpoverty.[169] Increasingthesupplyofbasicneeds[edit] Foodandothergoods[edit] SpreadingfertilizeronafieldofRapeseednearBarton-upon-Humber,England Agriculturaltechnologiessuchasnitrogenfertilizers,pesticides,newseedvarietiesandnewirrigationmethodshavedramaticallyreducedfoodshortagesinmoderntimesbyboostingyieldspastpreviousconstraints.[170]Goal2oftheSustainableDevelopmentGoalsistheeliminationofhungerandundernutritionby2030.[171] BeforetheIndustrialRevolution,povertyhadbeenmostlyacceptedasinevitableaseconomiesproducedlittle,makingwealthscarce.[172]GeoffreyParkerwrotethat"InAntwerpandLyon,twoofthelargestcitiesinwesternEurope,by1600three-quartersofthetotalpopulationweretoopoortopaytaxes,andthereforelikelytoneedreliefintimesofcrisis."[173]Theinitialindustrialrevolutionledtohigheconomicgrowthandeliminatedmassabsolutepovertyinwhatisnowconsideredthedevelopedworld.[174]MassproductionofgoodsinplacessuchasrapidlyindustrializingChinahasmadewhatwereonceconsideredluxuries,suchasvehiclesandcomputers,inexpensiveandthusaccessibletomanywhowereotherwisetoopoortoaffordthem.[175][176] Evenwithnewproducts,suchasbetterseeds,orgreatervolumesofthem,suchasindustrialproduction,thepoorstillrequireaccesstotheseproducts.Improvingroadandtransportationinfrastructurehelpssolvethismajorbottleneck.InAfrica,itcostsmoretomovefertilizerfromanAfricanseaport100kilometres(60 mi)inlandthantoshipitfromtheUnitedStatestoAfricabecauseofsparse,low-qualityroads,leadingtofertilizercoststwotosixtimestheworldaverage.[177]Microfranchisingmodelssuchasdoor-to-doordistributorswhoearncommission-basedincomeorCoca-Cola'ssuccessfuldistributionsystem[178][179]areusedtodisseminatebasicneedstoremoteareasforbelowmarketprices.[180][181] Healthcareandeducation[edit] HardwoodsurgicaltablesarecommonplaceinruralNigerianclinics. Seealso:HealthcaresystemandPrimaryeducation Nationsdonotnecessarilyneedwealthtogainhealth.[182]Forexample,SriLankahadamaternalmortalityrateof2%inthe1930s,higherthananynationtoday.[183]Itreduceditto0.5–0.6%inthe1950sandto0.6%todaywhilespendinglesseachyearonmaternalhealthbecauseitlearnedwhatworkedandwhatdidnot.[183]Knowledgeonthecosteffectivenessofhealthcareinterventionscanbeelusiveandeducationalmeasureshavebeenmadetodisseminatewhatworks,suchastheCopenhagenConsensus.[184]Cheapwaterfiltersandpromotinghandwashingaresomeofthemostcosteffectivehealthinterventionsandcancutdeathsfromdiarrheaandpneumonia.[185][186] Strategiestoprovideeducationcosteffectivelyincludedewormingchildren,whichcostsabout50centsperchildperyearandreducesnon-attendancefromanemia,illnessandmalnutrition,whilebeingonlyatwenty-fifthasexpensiveasincreasingschoolattendancebyconstructingschools.[187]Schoolgirlabsenteeismcouldbecutinhalfbysimplyprovidingfreesanitarytowels.[188]FortificationwithmicronutrientswasrankedthemostcosteffectiveaidstrategybytheCopenhagenConsensus.[189]Forexample,iodisedsaltcosts2to3centsperpersonayearwhileevenmoderateiodinedeficiencyinpregnancyshavesoff10to15IQpoints.[190]Payingforschoolmealsisarguedtobeanefficientstrategyinincreasingschoolenrollment,reducingabsenteeismandincreasingstudentattention.[191] Desirableactionssuchasenrollingchildreninschoolorreceivingvaccinationscanbeencouragedbyaformofaidknownasconditionalcashtransfers.[192]InMexico,forexample,dropoutratesof16-to19-year-oldsinruralareadroppedby20%andchildrengainedhalfaninchinheight.[193]Initialfearsthattheprogramwouldencouragefamiliestostayathomeratherthanworktocollectbenefitshaveproventobeunfounded.Instead,thereislessexcuseforneglectfulbehavioras,forexample,childrenstoppedbeggingonthestreetsinsteadofgoingtoschoolbecauseitcouldresultinsuspensionfromtheprogram.[193] Housing[edit] Therighttoadequetehousingisahumanright.[194][195]PoliciessuchasHousingFirstemphasizethatotherbasicneedsareeasiertobemetwhenhousingisfirstguaranteed. Removingconstraintsongovernmentservices[edit] Seealso:Politicalcorruption,Taxhavens,Transfermispricing,Developingcountries'debt,andConditionality LocalcitizensfromtheJanabiVillagewaittheirturntogathergoodsfromtheSonsofIraq(Abnaal-Iraq)inamilitaryoperationconductedinYusufiyah,Iraq. Governmentrevenuecanbedivertedawayfrombasicservicesbycorruption.[196][197]Fundsfromaidandnaturalresourcesareoftensentbygovernmentindividualsformoneylaunderingtooverseasbankswhichinsistonbanksecrecy,insteadofspendingonthepoor.[198]AGlobalWitnessreportaskedformoreactionfromWesternbanksastheyhaveprovedcapableofstanchingtheflowoffundslinkedtoterrorism.[198] Illicitcapitalflight,suchascorporatetaxavoidance,[199]fromthedevelopingworldisestimatedattentimesthesizeofaiditreceivesandtwicethedebtserviceitpays,[200]withoneestimatethatmostofAfricawouldbedevelopedifthetaxesowedwerepaid.[201]About60percentofillicitcapitalflightfromAfricaisfromtransfermispricing,whereasubsidiaryinadevelopingnationsellstoanothersubsidiaryorshellcompanyinataxhavenatanartificiallylowpricetopaylesstax.[202]AnAfricanUnionreportestimatesthatabout30%ofsub-SaharanAfrica'sGDPhasbeenmovedtotaxhavens.[203]Solutionsincludecorporate"country-by-countryreporting"wherecorporationsdiscloseactivitiesineachcountryandtherebyprohibittheuseoftaxhavenswherenoeffectiveeconomicactivityoccurs.[202] Developingcountries'debtservicetobanksandgovernmentsfromrichercountriescanconstraingovernmentspendingonthepoor.[204]Forexample,Zambiaspent40%ofitstotalbudgettorepayforeigndebt,andonly7%forbasicstateservicesin1997.[205]Oneoftheproposedwaystohelppoorcountrieshasbeendebtrelief.Zambiabeganofferingservices,suchasfreehealthcareevenwhileoverwhelmingthehealthcareinfrastructure,becauseofsavingsthatresultedfroma2005roundofdebtrelief.[206]Sincethatroundofdebtrelief,privatecreditorsaccountedforanincreasingshareofpoorcountries'debtserviceobligations.ThiscomplicatedeffortstorenegotiateeasiertermsforborrowersduringcrisessuchastheCOVID-19pandemicbecausethemultipleprivatecreditorsinvolvedsaytheyhaveafiduciaryobligationtotheirclientssuchasthepensionfunds.[207][208] TheWorldBankandtheInternationalMonetaryFund,asprimaryholdersofdevelopingcountries'debt,attachstructuraladjustmentconditionalitiesinreturnforloanswhicharegenerallygearedtowardloanrepaymentwithausteritymeasuressuchastheeliminationofstatesubsidiesandtheprivatizationofstateservices.Forexample,theWorldBankpressespoornationstoeliminatesubsidiesforfertilizerevenwhilemanyfarmerscannotaffordthematmarketprices.[209]InMalawi,almost5millionofits13millionpeopleusedtoneedemergencyfoodaidbutafterthegovernmentchangedpolicyandsubsidiesforfertilizerandseedwereintroduced,farmersproducedrecord-breakingcornharvestsin2006and2007asMalawibecameamajorfoodexporter.[209]Amajorproportionofaidfromdonornationsistied,mandatingthatareceivingnationspendonproductsandexpertiseoriginatingonlyfromthedonorcountry.[210]USlawrequiresfoodaidbespentonbuyingfoodathome,insteadofwherethehungrylive,and,asaresult,halfofwhatisspentisusedontransport.[211] Distressedsecuritiesfunds,alsoknownasvulturefunds,buyupthedebtofpoornationscheaplyandthensuecountriesforthefullvalueofthedebtplusinterestwhichcanbetenor100timeswhattheypaid.[212]Theymaypursueanycompanieswhichdobusinesswiththeirtargetcountrytoforcethemtopaytothefundinstead.[212]Considerableresourcesaredivertedoncostlycourtcases.Forexample,acourtinJerseyorderedtheDemocraticRepublicoftheCongotopayanAmericanspeculator$100millionin2010.[212]Now,theUK,IsleofManandJerseyhavebannedsuchpayments.[212] AfamilyplanningplacardinEthiopia.Itshowssomenegativeeffectsofhavingtoomanychildren. Reversingbraindrain[edit] Mainarticles:ReversebraindrainandHumancapitalflight Thelossofbasicneedsprovidersemigratingfromimpoverishedcountrieshasadamagingeffect.[213]Asof2004,thereweremoreEthiopia-traineddoctorslivinginChicagothaninEthiopia.[214]Proposalstomitigatetheproblemincludecompulsorygovernmentserviceforgraduatesofpublicmedicalandnursingschools[213]andpromotingmedicaltourismsothathealthcarepersonnelhavemoreincentivetopracticeintheirhomecountries.[215]ItisveryeasyforUgandandoctorstoemigratetoothercountries.Itisseenthatonly69%ofthehealthcarejobswerefilledinUganda.OtherUgandandoctorswereseekingjobsinothercountriesleavinginadequateorlessskilleddoctorstostayinUganda.[216] Familyplanninganddemographictransition[edit] Mainarticles:Demographictransitionandfamilyplanning Mapofcountriesandterritoriesbyfertilityrateasof2020 Povertyandlackofaccesstobirthcontrolcanleadtopopulationincreasesthatputpressureonlocaleconomiesandaccesstoresources,amplifyingothereconomicinequalityandcreatingincreasepoverty.[217][81][218]Bettereducationforbothmenandwomen,andmorecontroloftheirlives,reducespopulationgrowthduetofamilyplanning.[219]AccordingtoUnitedNationsPopulationFund(UNFPA),menandwomenwhoreceivebettereducationcanearnmoneyfortheirlives,strengtheningeconomicsecurity.[220] Increasingpersonalincome[edit] Thefollowingarestrategiesusedorproposedtoincreasepersonalincomesamongthepoor.Raisingfarmincomesisdescribedasthecoreoftheantipovertyeffortasthree-quartersofthepoortodayarefarmers.[221]Estimatesshowthatgrowthintheagriculturalproductivityofsmallfarmersis,onaverage,atleasttwiceaseffectiveinbenefitingthepooresthalfofacountry'spopulationasgrowthgeneratedinnonagriculturalsectors.[222] Incomegrants[edit] AfghangirlbegginginKabul Mainarticles:Guaranteedminimumincome,Socialsecurity,andWelfare Aguaranteedminimumincomeensuresthateverycitizenwillbeabletopurchaseadesiredlevelofbasicneeds.Abasicincome(ornegativeincometax)isasystemofsocialsecurity,thatperiodicallyprovideseachcitizen,richorpoor,withasumofmoneythatissufficienttoliveon.Studiesoflargecash-transferprogramsinEthiopia,Kenya,andMalawishowthattheprogramscanbeeffectiveinincreasingconsumption,schooling,andnutrition,whethertheyaretiedtosuchconditionsornot.[223][224][225]Proponentsarguethatabasicincomeismoreeconomicallyefficientthanaminimumwageandunemploymentbenefits,astheminimumwageeffectivelyimposesahighmarginaltaxonemployers,causinglossesinefficiency.In1968,PaulSamuelson,JohnKennethGalbraithandanother1,200economistssignedadocumentcallingfortheUSCongresstointroduceasystemofincomeguarantees.[226]WinnersoftheNobelPrizeinEconomics,withoftendiversepoliticalconvictions,whosupportabasicincomeincludeHerbertA.Simon,[227]FriedrichHayek,[228]RobertSolow,[227]MiltonFriedman,[229]JanTinbergen,[227]JamesTobin[230][231][232] andJamesMeade.[227] Incomegrantsarearguedtobevastlymoreefficientinextendingbasicneedstothepoorthansubsidizingsupplieswhoseeffectivenessinpovertyalleviationisdilutedbythenon-poorwhoenjoythesamesubsidizedprices.[233]Withcarsandotherappliances,thewealthiest20%ofEgyptusesabout93%ofthecountry'sfuelsubsidies.[234]Insomecountries,fuelsubsidiesarealargerpartofthebudgetthanhealthandeducation.[234][235]A2008studyconcludedthatthemoneyspentonin-kindtransfersinIndiainayearcouldliftallIndia'spooroutofpovertyforthatyeariftransferreddirectly.[236]Theprimaryobstaclearguedagainstdirectcashtransfersistheimpracticallyforpoorcountriesofsuchlargeanddirecttransfers.Inpractice,paymentsdeterminedbycomplexirisscanningareusedbywar-tornDemocraticRepublicofCongoandAfghanistan,[237]whileIndiaisphasingoutitsfuelsubsidiesinfavorofdirecttransfers.[238]Additionally,inaidmodels,thefaminereliefmodelincreasinglyusedbyaidgroupscallsforgivingcashorcashvoucherstothehungrytopaylocalfarmersinsteadofbuyingfoodfromdonorcountries,oftenrequiredbylaw,asitwastesmoneyontransportcosts.[239][240] Economicfreedoms[edit] Seealso:EconomicfreedomandRedtape Corruptionoftenleadstomanycivilservicesbeingtreatedbygovernmentsasemploymentagenciestoloyalsupporters[241]andsoitcouldmeangoingthrough20procedures,paying$2,696infees,andwaiting82businessdaystostartabusinessinBolivia,whileinCanadaittakestwodays,tworegistrationprocedures,and$280todothesame.[242]Suchcostlybarriersfavorbigfirmsattheexpenseofsmallenterprises,wheremostjobsarecreated.[243]Often,businesseshavetobribegovernmentofficialsevenforroutineactivities,whichis,ineffect,ataxonbusiness.[244]NotedreductionsinpovertyinrecentdecadeshasoccurredinChinaandIndiamostlyasaresultoftheabandonmentofcollectivefarminginChinaandtheendingofthecentralplanningmodelknownastheLicenseRajinIndia.[245][246][247] TheWorldBankconcludesthatgovernmentsandfeudalelitesextendingtothepoortherighttothelandthattheyliveanduseare'thekeytoreducingpoverty'citingthatlandrightsgreatlyincreasepoorpeople'swealth,insomecasesdoublingit.[248]Althoughapproachesvaried,theWorldBanksaidthekeyissuesweresecurityoftenureandensuringlandtransactionscostswerelow.[248] Greateraccesstomarketsbringsmoreincometothepoor.Roadinfrastructurehasadirectimpactonpoverty.[249][250]Additionally,migrationfrompoorercountriesresultedin$328billionsentfromrichertopoorercountriesin2010,morethandoublethe$120billioninofficialaidflowsfromOECDmembers.In2011,Indiagot$52billionfromitsdiaspora,morethanittookinforeigndirectinvestment.[251] Financialservices[edit] Informationandcommunicationtechnologiesfordevelopmenthelptofightpoverty. Seealso:MicrofinanceandMicrocredit Microloans,madefamousbytheGrameenBank,iswheresmallamountsofmoneyareloanedtofarmersorvillages,mostlywomen,whocanthenobtainphysicalcapitaltoincreasetheireconomicrewards.However,microlendinghasbeencriticizedformakinghyperprofitsoffthepoorevenfromitsfounder,MuhammadYunus,[252]andinIndia,ArundhatiRoyassertsthatsome250,000debt-riddenfarmershavebeendriventosuicide.[253][254][255] Thoseinpovertyplaceoverwhelmingimportanceonhavingasafeplacetosavemoney,muchmoresothanreceivingloans.[256]Additionally,alargepartofmicrofinanceloansarespentnotoninvestmentsbutonproductsthatwouldusuallybepaidbyacheckingorsavingsaccount.[256]Microsavingsaredesignstomakesavingsproductsavailableforthepoor,whomakesmalldeposits.Mobilebankingutilizesthewideavailabilityofmobilephonestoaddresstheproblemoftheheavyregulationandcostlymaintenanceofsavingaccounts.[256]Thisusuallyinvolvesanetworkofagentsofmostlyshopkeepers,insteadofbankbranches,wouldtakedepositsincashandtranslatetheseontoavirtualaccountoncustomers'phones.Cashtransferscanbedonebetweenphonesandissuedbackincashwithasmallcommission,makingremittancessafer.[257] Perspectives[edit] Economictheories[edit] Seealso:Causesofpoverty Thecauseofpovertyisahighlyideologicallychargedsubject,asdifferentcausespointtodifferentremedies.Verybroadlyspeaking,thesocialisttraditionlocatestherootsofpovertyinproblemsofdistributionandtheuseofthemeansofproductionascapitalbenefitingindividuals,andcallsforredistributionofwealthasthesolution,whereastheneoliberalschoolofthoughtholdsthatcreatingconditionsforprofitableprivateinvestmentisthesolution.Neoliberalthinktankshavereceivedextensivefunding,[258]andtheabilitytoapplymanyoftheirideasinhighlyindebtedcountriesintheglobalSouthasaconditionforreceivingemergencyloansfromtheInternationalMonetaryFund. Theexistenceofinequalityisinpartduetoasetofself-reinforcingbehaviorsthatalltogetherconstituteoneaspectofthecycleofpoverty.Thesebehaviors,inadditiontounfavorable,externalcircumstances,alsoexplaintheexistenceoftheMattheweffect,whichnotonlyexacerbatesexistinginequality,butismorelikelytomakeitmultigenerational.Widespread,multigenerationalpovertyisanimportantcontributortocivilunrestandpoliticalinstability.[259]Forexample,RaghuramG.Rajan,formergovernoroftheReserveBankofIndiaandformerchiefeconomistattheInternationalMonetaryFund,hasblamedtheever-wideninggulfbetweentherichandthepoor,especiallyintheUS,tobeoneofthemainfaultlineswhichcausedthefinancialinstitutionstopumpmoneyintosubprimemortgages—onpoliticalbehest,asapalliativeandnotaremedy,forpoverty—causingthefinancialcrisisof2007–2009.InRajan'sviewthemaincauseoftheincreasinggapbetweenhighincomeandlowincomeearnerswaslackofequalaccesstohighereducationforthelatter.[260] Oxfamarguesthatthe"concentrationofresourcesinthehandsofthetop1%depresseseconomicactivityandmakeslifeharderforeveryoneelse—particularlythoseatthebottomoftheeconomicladder"[261][262]andthatthegainsoftheworld'sbillionairesin2017,whichamountedto$762billion,wereenoughtoendextremeglobalpovertyseventimesover.[263]Adatabasedscientificempiricalresearch,whichstudiedtheimpactofdynasticpoliticsonthelevelofpovertyoftheprovinces,foundapositivecorrelationbetweendynasticpoliticsandpoverty;i.e.thehigherproportionofdynasticpoliticiansinpowerinaprovinceleadstohigherpovertyrate.[264]Thereissignificantevidencethatthesepoliticaldynastiesusetheirpoliticaldominanceovertheirrespectiveregionstoenrichthemselves,usingmethodssuchasgraftoroutrightbriberyoflegislators.[265] Children[edit] ThissectionisanexcerptfromChildpoverty.[edit] TwosisterssitontheslumstreetsofSpitalfields,London,circa1903. Childpovertyreferstothestateofchildrenlivinginpovertyandappliestochildrenfrompoorfamiliesandorphansbeingraisedwithlimitedornostateresources.UNICEFestimatesthat356millionchildrenliveinextremepoverty.It'sestimatedthat1billionchildren(about1in2childrenworldwide)lackatleastoneessentialnecessitysuchashousing,regularfood,orcleanwater.Childrenaremorethantwiceaslikelytoliveinpovertyasadultsandthepoorestchildrenaretwiceaslikelytodiebeforetheageof5comparedtotheirwealthierpeers.[266] Disability[edit] ThissectionisanexcerptfromDisabilityandpoverty.[edit] Disability Theoryandmodels Disabilitytheory Ableism /Disablism Medicalmodel Socialmodel Education Mainstreaming IndividualizedEducationProgram(IEP) Specialneeds Specialschool Specialeducation Learningdisability Therapy Physical Occupational Speech Societalimplications Disabilityrightsmovement Inclusion Normalization People-firstlanguage Pejorativeterms Personalassistance Unlicensedassistivepersonnel (ADLs) Orthoticsandbraces Prosthetics Assistivetechnology Assistedliving Mobilityaid Physicalaccessibility Universaldesign Webaccessibility Socioeconomicassistance SocialSecurityDisabilityInsurance SupplementalSecurityIncome TickettoWork DisabilityLivingAllowance Disabledstudentsallowance DisabledPersonsRailcard FreedomPass AssuredIncomefortheSeverelyHandicapped GroupsOrganizations NationalTelecommutingInstitute SocietyforDisabilityStudies DisabledPeoples'International(DPI) Visitability WeThe15 Parasports SpecialOlympics ParalympicGames Deaflympics InvictusGames Culture Disabilityinthearts Disabilityart Disabilityinthemedia  DisabilityListsvte Theworld'spooraresignificantlymorelikelytohaveorincuradisabilitywithintheirlifetimecomparedtomorefinanciallyprivilegedpopulations.Therateofdisabilitywithinimpoverishednationsisnotablyhigherthanthatfoundinmoredevelopedcountries.Sincetheearly2010stherehasbeengrowingresearchinsupportofanassociationbetweendisabilityandpovertyandofacyclebywhichpovertyanddisabilityaremutuallyreinforcing.Physical,cognitive,mental,emotional,sensory,ordevelopmentalimpairmentsindependentlyorintandemwithoneanothermayincreaseone'slikelihoodofbecomingimpoverished,whilelivinginpovertymayincreaseone'spotentialofhavingoracquiringdisabilityinsomecapacity. Gender[edit] ThissectionisanexcerptfromFeminizationofpoverty.[edit] Feminizationofpovertyreferstoatrendofincreasinginequalityinlivingstandardsbetweenmenandwomenduetothewideninggendergapinpoverty.Thisphenomenonlargelylinkstohowwomenandchildrenaredisproportionatelyrepresentedwithinthelowersocioeconomicstatuscommunityincomparisontomenwithinthesamesocioeconomicstatus.[267]Causesofthefeminizationofpovertyincludethestructureoffamilyandhousehold,employment,sexualviolence,education,climatechange,femonomicsandhealth.Thetraditionalstereotypesofwomenremainembeddedinmanyculturesrestrictingincomeopportunitiesandcommunityinvolvementformanywomen.Matchedwithalowfoundationincome,thiscanmanifesttoacycleofpovertyandthusaninter-generationalissue. Entrepreneurshipisusuallyperceivedasthecure-allsolutionfordeprivationdepletion.Advocatesassertthatitguidestojobdesign,higherearnings,andlowerdeprivationpricesinthetownswithinithappens.Othersdisagreethatnumerousentrepreneursaregeneratinglow-capacitycompanieshelpingregionalmarkets.[268] ThistermwasoriginatedintheUS,towardstheendofthetwentiethcentury[269]andmaintainsprominenceasacontestedinternationalphenomenon.[270]SomeresearchersdescribetheseissuesasprominentinsomecountriesofAsia,AfricaandareasofEurope.Womeninthesecountriesaretypicallydeprivedofincome,employmentopportunitiesandphysicalandemotionalhelpputtingthematthehighestriskofpoverty.Thisphenomenonalsodiffersbetweenreligiousgroups,dependentonthefocusputongenderrolesandhowcloselytheirrespectivereligioustextsarefollowed. Feminisationofpovertyisprimarilymeasuredusingthreeinternationalindexes.TheseindexesaretheGender-relatedDevelopmentalIndex,GenderEmpowermentMeasureandtheHumanPovertyIndex.Theseindexesfocusonissuesotherthanmonetaryorfinancialissues.Theseindexesfocusongenderinequalities,standardoflivingandhighlightthedifferencebetweenhumanpovertyandincomepoverty. Environmentalism[edit] Mainarticle:Sustainabledevelopment Seealso:Climatechangeandpoverty Asewagetreatmentplantthatusessolarenergy,locatedatSantuarideLlucmonastery,Majorca Areportpublishedin2013bytheWorldBank,withsupportfromtheClimate&DevelopmentKnowledgeNetwork,foundthatclimatechangewaslikelytohinderfutureattemptstoreducepoverty.Thereportpresentedthelikelyimpactsofpresentday,2 °Cand4 °Cwarmingonagriculturalproduction,waterresources,coastalecosystemsandcitiesacrossSub-SaharanAfrica,SouthAsiaandSouthEastAsia.Theimpactsofatemperatureriseof2 °Cincluded:regularfoodshortagesinSub-SaharanAfrica;shiftingrainpatternsinSouthAsialeavingsomepartsunderwaterandotherswithoutenoughwaterforpowergeneration,irrigationordrinking;degradationandlossofreefsinSouthEastAsia,resultinginreducedfishstocks;andcoastalcommunitiesandcitiesmorevulnerabletoincreasinglyviolentstorms.[271]In2016,aUNreportclaimedthatby2030,anadditional122millionmorepeoplecouldbedriventoextremepovertybecauseofclimatechange.[272] Globalwarmingcanalsoleadtoadeficiencyinwateravailability;withhighertemperaturesandCO2levels,plantsconsumemorewaterleavinglessforpeople.Byconsequence,waterinriversandstreamswilldeclineinthemid-altituderegionslikeCentralAsia,EuropeandNorthAmerica.AndifCO2levelscontinuetorise,orevenremainthesame,droughtswillbehappeningmuchfasterandwillbelastinglonger.AccordingtoastudyledbyProfessorofWaterManagement,ArjenHoekstra,andmadein2016,fourbillionpeopleareaffectedbywaterscarcityatleastonemonthperyear.[273] Manythinkthatpovertyisthecauseofenvironmentaldegradation,whilethereareotherswhoclaimthatratherthepooraretheworstsufferersofenvironmentaldegradationcausedbyrecklessexploitationofnaturalresourcesbytherich.[274]ADelhi-basedenvironmentorganization,theCentreforScienceandEnvironment,pointsoutthatifthepoorworldweretodevelopandconsumeinthesamemannerastheWesttoachievethesamelivingstandards,"wewouldneedtwoadditionalplanetEarthstoproduceresourcesandabsorbwastes",reportsAnupShah(2003),inhisarticle"PovertyandtheEnvironment—GlobalIssues".[275] Voluntarypoverty[edit] Seealso:SimplelivingandEvangelicalcounsels St.FrancisofAssisirenounceshisworldlygoodsinapaintingattributedtoGiottodiBondone. Amongsomeindividuals,povertyisconsideredanecessaryordesirablecondition,whichmustbeembracedtoreachcertainspiritual,moral,orintellectualstates.PovertyisoftenunderstoodtobeanessentialelementofrenunciationinreligionssuchasBuddhism,Hinduism(onlyformonks,notforlaypersons)andJainism,whilstinChristianity,inparticularRomanCatholicism,itisoneoftheevangelicalcounsels.Themainaimofgivingupthingsofthematerialisticworldistowithdrawoneselffromsensualpleasures(astheyareconsideredillusionaryandonlytemporaryinsomereligions—suchastheconceptofdunyainIslam).Thisself-invitedpoverty(orgivinguppleasures)isdifferentfromtheonecausedbyeconomicimbalance. SomeChristiancommunities,suchastheSimpleWay,theBruderhof,andtheAmishvaluevoluntarypoverty;[276]someeventakeavowofpoverty,similartothatofthetraditionalCatholicorders,inordertoliveamorecompletelifeofdiscipleship.[277] BenedictXVIdistinguished"povertychosen"(thepovertyofspiritproposedbyJesus),and"povertytobefought"(unjustandimposedpoverty).Heconsideredthatthemoderationimpliedintheformerfavorssolidarity,andisanecessaryconditionsoastofighteffectivelytoeradicatetheabuseofthelatter.[278] Asitwasindicatedabovethereductionofpovertyresultsfromreligion,butalsocanresultfromsolidarity.[279] Chartsandtables[edit] Worldpopulationlivinginextremepoverty,1990–2015 Povertyheadcountratioat$1.90aday(2011PPP)(%ofpopulation).BasedonWorldBankdatarangingfrom1998to2018.[280] Percentageofpopulationsufferingfromhunger,WorldFoodProgramme,2020 Lifeexpectancy,2016 WorldmapofcountriesbyHumanDevelopmentIndexcategoriesinincrementsof0.050(basedon2019data,publishedin2020).  ≥0.900  0.850–0.899  0.800–0.849  0.750–0.799  0.700–0.749  0.650–0.699  0.600–0.649  0.550–0.599  0.500–0.549  0.450–0.499  0.400–0.449  ≤0.399  Dataunavailable TheGinicoefficient,ameasureofincomeinequality.BasedonWorldBankdatarangingfrom1992to2018.[281] Seealso[edit] Accumulationbydispossession Aporophobia Assetpoverty Basicincome Bottomofthepyramid Causesofpoverty Climatechangeandpoverty Cycleofpoverty Environmentalracism EnvironmentalRacismintheUnitedStates Extremepoverty FoodBank ForthePoor Homelessness Humanrights Hunger HungerintheUnitedKingdom HungerintheUnitedStates Incomedisparity Internationaldevelopment Internationalinequality Involuntaryunemployment Jobguarantee Juvenilizationofpoverty LesMisérables Listofcountriesbypercentageofpopulationlivinginpoverty Livingwage Measuringpoverty MillenniumDevelopmentGoals Povertythreshold Povertytrap Povertyreduction 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Banerjee,Abhijit&EstherDuflo,PoorEconomics:ARadicalRethinkingoftheWaytoFightGlobalPoverty(NewYork:PublicAffairs,2011) Bergmann,Barbara."DecidingWho'sPoor"Archived20May2008attheWaybackMachine,Dollars&Sense,March/April2000 Betson,DavidM.&Warlick,JenniferL."AlternativeHistoricalTrendsinPoverty."AmericanEconomicReview88:348–51.1998. Brady,David"RethinkingtheSociologicalMeasurementofPoverty"SocialForces81#32003,pp. 715–51OnlineinProjectMuse. Buhmann,Brigitte,etal.1988."EquivalenceScales,Well-Being,Inequality,andPoverty:SensitivityEstimatesAcrossTenCountriesUsingtheLuxembourgIncomeStudy(LIS)Database."ReviewofIncomeandWealth34:115–42. Danziger,SheldonH.&Weinberg,DanielH."TheHistoricalRecord:TrendsinFamilyIncome,Inequality,andPoverty."pp. 18–50inConfrontingPoverty:PrescriptionsforChange,editedbySheldonH.Danziger,GaryD.Sandefur,andDaniel.H.Weinberg.RussellSageFoundation.1994. Firebaugh,Glenn."EmpiricsofWorldIncomeInequality."AmericanJournalofSociology(2000)104:1597–1630.inJSTOR Gans,HerbertJ.,"TheUsesofPoverty:ThePoorPayAll"Archived5June2007attheWaybackMachine,SocialPolicy,July/August1971:pp. 20–24 Gordon,DavidM.TheoriesofPovertyandUnderemployment:Orthodox,Radical,andDualLaborMarketPerspectives.1972. Haveman,RobertH.PovertyPolicyandPovertyResearch.UniversityofWisconsinPress1987ISBN 0-299-11150-4 Haymes,Stephen,MariaVidaldeHaymesandReubenMiller(eds).TheRoutledgeHandbookofPovertyintheUnitedStatesArchived17June2015attheWaybackMachine.Routledge,2015.ISBN 0-415-67344-5. Iceland,JohnPovertyinAmerica:ahandbookUniversityofCaliforniaPress,2003 McEwan,Joanne,andPamelaSharpe,eds.AccommodatingPoverty:TheHousingandLivingArrangementsoftheEnglishPoor,c.1600–1850(PalgraveMacmillan;2010)292pages;scholarlystudiesofruralandurbanpoor,aswellasvagrants,unmarriedmothers,andalmshousedwellers. O'Connor,Alice(2000)."PovertyResearchandPolicyforthePost-WelfareEra".AnnualReviewofSociology.26:547–62.doi:10.1146/annurev.soc.26.1.547. Osberg,Lars;Xu,Kuan."InternationalComparisonsofPovertyIntensity:indexdecompositionandbootstrapinference".TheJournalofHumanResources.2000(35):51–81. Paugam,Serge."PovertyandSocialExclusion:asociologicalview."pp. 41–62inTheFutureofEuropeanWelfare,editedbyMartinRhodesandYvesMeny,1998. Philippou,Lambros(2010)."PublicSpace,EnlargedMentalityandBeing-In-Poverty".PhilosophicalInquiry.32(1–2):103–15.doi:10.5840/philinquiry2010321/218. Prashad,Vijay.ThePoorerNations:APossibleHistoryoftheGlobalSouth.VersoBooks,June2014.ISBN 1-78168-158-9 Pressman,Steven,PovertyinAmerica:anannotatedbibliography.Metuchen,NJ:ScarecrowPress,1994ISBN 0-8108-2833-2 Robinson,Marilynne,"IsPovertyNecessary?Anideathatwon'tgoaway",Harper'sMagazine,vol.338,no.2029(June2019),pp. 25–33."Tobringupthesubjectofprovidingabetterlifeistoleantoofarleft,toflirtwithsocialism....'Why...dowagestendtoaminimumwhichwillgivebutabareliving?'Ashortanswerwouldbe:becausetheycan....Insofarasthepublicisbarredfromtakingacentralroleinsociety,welosewisdomtostealth,stupidity,parochialism." Rothman,DavidJ.,(editor).TheAlmshouseExperience(PovertyU.S.A.:theHistoricalRecord).NewYork:ArnoPress,1971.ISBN 0-405-03092-4ReprintofReportofthecommitteeappointedbytheBoardofGuardiansofthePooroftheCityandDistrictsofPhiladelphiatovisitthecitiesofBaltimore,NewYork,Providence,Boston,andSalem(publishedinPhiladelphia,1827);ReportoftheMassachusettsGeneralCourt'sCommitteeonPauperLaws(publishedin[Boston?],1821);andthe1824ReportoftheNewYorkSecretaryofStateonthereliefandsettlementofthepoor(fromthe24thannualreportoftheNewYorkStateBoardofCharities,1901). Roy,Arundhati,Capitalism:AGhostStory,HaymarketBooks,2014,ISBN 1-60846-385-0. Sen,Amartya,PovertyandFamines:AnEssayonEntitlementandDeprivation,Oxford,ClarendonPress,1981. Sen,Amartya,DevelopmentasFreedom,NewYork,Knopf,1999. Smeeding,TimothyM.,O'Higgins,Michael&Rainwater,Lee.Poverty,InequalityandIncomeDistributioninComparativePerspective.UrbanInstitutePress1990. Smith,StephenC.,EndingGlobalPoverty:aguidetowhatworks,NewYork:PalgraveMacmillan,2005 Triest,RobertK.(1998)."HasPovertyGottenWorse?".JournalofEconomicPerspectives.12:97–114.doi:10.1257/jep.12.1.97. Wilson,Richard&Pickett,Kate.TheSpiritLevel,London:AllenLane,2009 WorldBank:"CanSouthAsiaEndPovertyinaGeneration?"Archived15April2008attheWaybackMachine WorldBank,"WorldDevelopmentReport2004:MakingServicesWorkForPoorPeople",2004 Externallinks[edit] WikimediaCommonshasmediarelatedtoPoverty. LookuppovertyinWiktionary,thefreedictionary. Wikiquotehasquotationsrelatedto:Poverty WikiversityhaslearningresourcesaboutEliminatingpoverty AddressingGlobalPovertyfromtheDeanPeterKroghForeignAffairsDigitalArchives Datavisualizationsofthelong-rundevelopmentofpovertyandlistofdatasourcesonpovertyon'OurWorldinData'. IslamicDevelopmentBank LuxembourgIncomeStudyContainsawealthofdataonincomeinequalityandpoverty,andhundredsofitssponsoredresearchpapersusingthisdata. OrganizationforEconomicCooperationandDevelopmentContainsreportsoneconomicdevelopmentaswellasrelationsbetweenrichandpoornations. OPHIOxfordPoverty&HumanDevelopmentInitiative(OPHI)Researchtoadvancethehumandevelopmentapproachtopovertyreduction. TransparencyInternationalTracksissuesofgovernmentandcorporatecorruptionaroundtheworld. UnitedNationsHundredsoffreereportsrelatedtoeconomicdevelopmentandstandardsoflivingincountriesaroundtheworld,suchastheannualHumanDevelopmentReport. USAgencyforInternationalDevelopmentUSAIDistheprimaryUSgovernmentagencywiththemissionforaidtodevelopingcountries. WorldBankContainshundredsofreportswhichcanbedownloadedforfree,suchastheannualWorldDevelopmentReport. WorldFoodProgramAssociatedwiththeUnitedNations,theWorldFoodProgramcompileshundredsofreportsonhungerandfoodsecurityaroundtheworld. WhypovertyDocumentaryfilmsaboutpovertybroadcastontelevisionaroundtheworldinNovember2012,thenwillbeavailableonline. Annualincomeofrichest100peopleenoughtoendglobalpovertyfourtimesover.OxfamInternational,19January2013. Containsestimatesonthenumberofpeoplelivinginpovertyinselectedcountriesfrom1973to1985 SummaryofHumanDevelopmentReport2014,bytheUnitedNationsDevelopmentProgramme MakingPovertyHistory,byVijayPrashadforJacobin.10November2014. vtePovertyOtheraspects Measuringpoverty Diseasesofpoverty Cycleofpoverty Povertyreduction SustainableDevelopmentGoals Metrics HomelessVulnerabilityIndex Miseryindex(economics) Ginicoefficient Genuineprogressindicator LegatumProsperityIndex Povertygapindex HumanPovertyIndex MultidimensionalPovertyIndex ScottishIndexofMultipleDeprivation ByLocationAfrica Algeria DemocraticRepublicoftheCongo Egypt Ethiopia Kenya Namibia Niger Nigeria SouthAfrica Tanzania Uganda Zimbabwe Asia Afghanistan Armenia Bangladesh Cambodia China Cyprus EastTimor India Israel Japan Lebanon NorthKorea SouthKorea Malaysia Nepal Pakistan Philippines Singapore SriLanka Vietnam Yemen Europe Cyprus France Germany Greece Italy Moldova Norway Poland Romania Switzerland Turkey Ukraine UnitedKingdom Oceania Australia NewZealand TheAmericas Argentina Bolivia Brazil Colombia Cuba Guatemala Haiti Honduras Jamaica Mexico Paraguay Peru UnitedStates Uruguay Venezuela Other Theoriesofpoverty Well-being Welfare Wellness Qualityoflife Self-perceivedquality-of-lifescale Subjectivewell-being(SWB) Suboptimalhealth Stress Ruralaccessissues ProvidingUrbanAmenitiestoRuralAreas Post-materialism Pen'sparade vteDiseasesofpovertyDiseasesofpoverty AIDS Malaria Tuberculosis Measles Pneumonia Diarrhealdiseases Plague Neglecteddiseases Cholera Chagasdisease Africansleepingsickness Schistosomiasis Dracunculiasis Riverblindness Leishmaniasis Trachoma Miscellaneous Malnutrition Priorityreviewvoucher Seealso Listofcountriesbypercentageofpopulationlivinginpoverty·Deprivationandpovertyindicators vteDeprivationandpovertyindicatorsSocialTopics: Socialexclusion Socialvulnerability Relativedeprivation Disadvantaged Fushūgaku Hikikomori Socialdeterminantsofhealthinpoverty Measures: SocialProgressIndex PsychologicalTopics: psychologicalpoverty Povertyandmentalhealth EconomicTopics: Energypoverty Money-rich,time-poor Povertythreshold Secondarypoverty Assetpoverty Housingstress Incomedeficit Waterscarcity Survivalsex Debtbondage Precariat Extremepoverty Measures: BelowPovertyLine(India) HomelessVulnerabilityIndex Miseryindex(economics) Ginicoefficient Genuineprogressindicator(GPI) LegatumProsperityIndex Povertygapindex PhysicalTopics: PovertyandViolence Disabilityandpoverty Foodinsecurity Measures: IndiaStateHungerIndex GlobalHungerIndex Disability-adjustedlifeyear(DALYs) GlobalPeaceIndex(GPI) Complexmeasures HumanPovertyIndex(HPI) HumanDevelopmentIndex(HDI) MultidimensionalPovertyIndex(MPI) PhysicalQualityofLifeIndex(PQLI) Laekenindicators(EU) Scottishindexofmultipledeprivation Townsenddeprivationindex LivingPlanetIndex(LPI) ProgressoutofPovertyIndex GenderTopics: Feminizationofpoverty Measures: Gender-relatedDevelopmentIndex(GDI) GenderParityIndex OtherCategories:Incomeinequalitymetrics·Measurementsanddefinitionsofpoverty·Socialresponsibilityorganizations vteIndicesofDeprivationNational(generaldeprivation) Carstairs MultipleDeprivation2000(IMD2000) Deprivation2004(ID2004) Deprivation2007(ID2007) Deprivation2010(ID2010) Townsend National(subjectspecificdeprivation) Underprivilegedareascore DepartmentofEnvironment's Commonscategories:Informationgraphicsaboutpoverty·Poverty-relatedmaps vteSocialclass Status Stratum Economicclasses Theories Gilbertmodel Marxian Mudsilltheory Newclass Spoonclasstheory Weberian(three-component) Related​topics Caste Chatteringclasses Classconflict Classdiscrimination Classsociety Classicide Classlesssociety Euthenics Nouveauriche /Parvenu Poverty Rankedsociety Snobbery Socialcleansing Socialexclusion Socialmobility Socialorphan Socialposition Socialstigma Subaltern BydemographicBystatus Administrativedetainee Alien illegalimmigrant refugee Citizen dualormultiple native-born naturalized second-class Clique adolescent Convicted Migrantworker Politicalprisoner Stateless By"collar" Blue Green Grey New Pink White BytypeRuling Aristocracy Hanseaten Patrician Political Royalfamily Intellectual Clergy Knowledgeworker Professor Warrior Chhetri Cossacks Cuāuh Harii Hashashin Knight Kshatriya Nair Ocēlōtl Samurai Spartiate Vanniyar/Vanniar(Chieftain) Yadav Upper Bourgeoisie Businessmagnate Elite Gentry Lord Nobility Oldmoney Overclass Robberbaron Russianoligarch Seigneur Superclass Creative Bohemians Middle Bourgeoisie Petitebourgeoisie Lowermiddleclass Uppermiddleclass Working Lumpenproletariat Proletariat Workingpoor Under Anttribe Commoner Outcast Outlaw /Prisoner Peasant /Serf Plebeian Rattribe Slave Untouchable BycountryorregionUnitedStates Affluence AmericanDream History Mobility Classes Upper Black Donor Gentry Middle Black Mexican-American UpperMiddle Underprivileged Lower Under Income Household Inequality Personal Poverty Standardofliving Education Homelessness Home-ownership Otherregions​orcountries Africa Cambodia China Colombia France Haiti India Iran Italy Luxembourg Nepal NewZealand Romania SriLanka Tibet UnitedKingdom UnitedStates Historic AncientGreece AncientRome Aztec OttomanEmpire Pre-industrialEastAsia Pre-industrialEurope SovietUnion Category vtePovertyinAfricaSovereignstates Algeria Angola Benin Botswana BurkinaFaso Burundi Cameroon CapeVerde CentralAfricanRepublic Chad Comoros DemocraticRepublicoftheCongo RepublicoftheCongo Djibouti Egypt EquatorialGuinea Eritrea Eswatini Ethiopia Gabon TheGambia Ghana Guinea Guinea-Bissau IvoryCoast Kenya Lesotho Liberia Libya Madagascar Malawi Mali Mauritania Mauritius Morocco Mozambique Namibia Niger Nigeria Rwanda SãoToméandPríncipe Senegal Seychelles SierraLeone Somalia SouthAfrica SouthSudan Sudan Tanzania Togo Tunisia Uganda Zambia Zimbabwe Stateswithlimitedrecognition SahrawiArabDemocraticRepublic Somaliland Dependenciesandotherterritories CanaryIslands /Ceuta /Melilla  (Spain) Madeira (Portugal) Mayotte /Réunion (France) SaintHelena /AscensionIsland /TristandaCunha (UnitedKingdom) vtePovertyintheAmericas NorthAmerica Caribbean CentralAmerica NorthernAmerica SouthAmerica Sovereignstates AntiguaandBarbuda Argentina Bahamas Barbados Belize Bolivia Brazil Canada Chile Colombia CostaRica Cuba Dominica DominicanRepublic Ecuador ElSalvador Grenada Guatemala Guyana Haiti Honduras Jamaica Mexico Nicaragua Panama Paraguay Peru SaintKittsandNevis SaintLucia SaintVincentandtheGrenadines Suriname TrinidadandTobago UnitedStates Uruguay Venezuela Dependenciesandotherterritories Anguilla Aruba Bermuda Bonaire BritishVirginIslands CaymanIslands Curaçao FalklandIslands FrenchGuiana Greenland Guadeloupe Martinique Montserrat PuertoRico SaintBarthélemy SaintMartin SaintPierreandMiquelon Saba SintEustatius SintMaarten SouthGeorgiaandtheSouthSandwichIslands TurksandCaicosIslands USVirginIslands vtePovertyinAsiaSovereignstates Afghanistan Armenia Azerbaijan Bahrain Bangladesh Bhutan Brunei Cambodia China Cyprus EastTimor(Timor-Leste) Egypt Georgia India Indonesia Iran Iraq Israel Japan Jordan Kazakhstan NorthKorea SouthKorea Kuwait Kyrgyzstan Laos Lebanon Malaysia Maldives Mongolia Myanmar Nepal Oman Pakistan Philippines Qatar Russia SaudiArabia Singapore SriLanka Syria Tajikistan Thailand Turkey Turkmenistan UnitedArabEmirates Uzbekistan Vietnam Yemen Stateswithlimitedrecognition Abkhazia Artsakh NorthernCyprus Palestine SouthOssetia Taiwan Dependenciesandotherterritories BritishIndianOceanTerritory ChristmasIsland Cocos(Keeling)Islands HongKong Macau Category Asiaportal vtePovertyinEuropeSovereignstates Albania Andorra Armenia Austria Azerbaijan Belarus Belgium BosniaandHerzegovina Bulgaria Croatia Cyprus CzechRepublic Denmark Estonia Finland France Georgia Germany Greece Hungary Iceland Ireland Italy Kazakhstan Latvia Liechtenstein Lithuania Luxembourg Malta Moldova Monaco Montenegro Netherlands NorthMacedonia Norway Poland Portugal Romania Russia SanMarino Serbia Slovakia Slovenia Spain Sweden Switzerland Turkey Ukraine UnitedKingdom Stateswithlimitedrecognition Abkhazia Artsakh Kosovo NorthernCyprus SouthOssetia Transnistria Dependenciesandotherentities Åland FaroeIslands Gibraltar Guernsey IsleofMan Jersey Svalbard vtePovertyinOceaniaSovereignstates Australia FederatedStatesofMicronesia Fiji Kiribati MarshallIslands Nauru NewZealand Palau PapuaNewGuinea Samoa SolomonIslands Tonga Tuvalu Vanuatu AssociatedstatesofNewZealand CookIslands Niue Dependenciesandotherterritories AmericanSamoa ChristmasIsland Cocos(Keeling)Islands EasterIsland FrenchPolynesia Guam Hawaii NewCaledonia NorfolkIsland NorthernMarianaIslands PitcairnIslands Tokelau WallisandFutuna vteEffectivealtruismConcepts Charityassessment Demandingnessobjection Disability-adjustedlifeyear Earningtogive Equalconsiderationofinterests Longtermism Marginalutility Quality-adjustedlifeyear Utilitarianism Venturephilanthropy Keyfigures SamBankman-Fried LivBoeree NickBostrom HilaryGreaves HoldenKarnofsky WilliamMacAskill DustinMoskovitz Yew-KwangNg TobyOrd DerekParfit PeterSinger CariTuna Organizations 80,000Hours AgainstMalariaFoundation All-PartyParliamentaryGroupforFutureGenerations AnimalCharityEvaluators AnimalEthics CenterforHighImpactPhilanthropy CentrefortheStudyofExistentialRisk DewormtheWorldInitiative Faunalytics FistulaFoundation FutureofHumanityInstitute FutureofLifeInstitute FoundersPledge GiveDirectly GiveWell GivingWhatWeCan GoodFoodFund TheGoodFoodInstitute GoodVentures TheHumaneLeague MercyforAnimals MachineIntelligenceResearchInstitute MalariaConsortium NuclearThreatInitiative OpenPhilanthropy RaisingforEffectiveGiving SchistosomiasisControlInitiative SentienceInstitute WildAnimalInitiative Focusareas Aideffectiveness Biotechnologyrisk Climatechange Culturedmeat Diseaseburden Economicstability Existentialriskfromartificialgeneralintelligence Globalcatastrophicrisk Globalhealth Globalpoverty Immigrationreform Intensiveanimalfarming Landusereform Lifeextension Malariaprevention Massdeworming Neglectedtropicaldiseases Sufferingrisks Wildanimalsuffering Literature DoingGoodBetter TheEndofAnimalFarming Famine,Affluence,andMorality TheLifeYouCanSave LivingHighandLettingDie TheMostGoodYouCanDo PracticalEthics ThePrecipice Events EffectiveAltruismGlobal AuthoritycontrolNationallibraries France(data) Germany Israel UnitedStates Japan Other HistoricalDictionaryofSwitzerland NationalArchives(US) İslâmAnsiklopedisi Retrievedfrom"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Poverty&oldid=1078118625" 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