Confidentiality - Wikipedia

Confidentiality involves a set of rules or a promise usually executed through confidentiality agreements that limits access or places restrictions on ... Confidentiality FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia Jumptonavigation Jumptosearch Non-disclosureofinformation FortheinformationsecurityattributeCIA(confidentiality,integrity,andavailability),seeInformationsecurity. "Confidential"redirectshere.Forotheruses,seeConfidential(disambiguation). Confidentialityinvolvesasetofrulesorapromiseusuallyexecutedthroughconfidentialityagreementsthatlimitsaccessorplacesrestrictionsoncertaintypesofinformation. Contents 1Legalconfidentiality 1.1BreachofconfidenceinEnglishlaw 2Medicalconfidentiality 2.1UnitedStates 2.2EuropeanUnion 2.3HIVconfidentiality 3Clinicalandcounselingpsychology 4Commercialconfidentiality 5Bankingconfidentiality 6Publicpolicyconcerns 7Seealso 8References 9Externallinks Legalconfidentiality[edit] Mainarticle:Privacylaw Lawyersareoftenrequiredbylawtokeepconfidentialanythingpertainingtotherepresentationofaclient.Thedutyofconfidentialityismuchbroaderthantheattorney–clientevidentiaryprivilege,whichonlycoverscommunicationsbetweentheattorneyandtheclient.[1] Boththeprivilegeandthedutyservethepurposeofencouragingclientstospeakfranklyabouttheircases.Thisway,lawyerscancarryouttheirdutytoprovideclientswithzealousrepresentation.Otherwise,theopposingsidemaybeabletosurprisethelawyerincourtwithsomethinghedidnotknowabouthisclient,whichmayweakentheclient'sposition.Also,adistrustfulclientmighthidearelevantfacthethinksisincriminating,butthataskilledlawyercouldturntotheclient'sadvantage(forexample,byraisingaffirmativedefenseslikeself-defense) However,mostjurisdictionshaveexceptionsforsituationswherethelawyerhasreasontobelievethattheclientmaykillorseriouslyinjuresomeone,maycausesubstantialinjurytothefinancialinterestorpropertyofanother,orisusing(orseekingtouse)thelawyer'sservicestoperpetrateacrimeorfraud. Insuchsituationsthelawyerhasthediscretion,butnottheobligation,todiscloseinformationdesignedtopreventtheplannedaction.MoststateshaveaversionofthisdiscretionarydisclosureruleunderRulesofProfessionalConduct,Rule1.6(oritsequivalent). Afewjurisdictionshavemadethistraditionallydiscretionarydutymandatory.Forexample,seetheNewJerseyandVirginiaRulesofProfessionalConduct,Rule1.6. Insomejurisdictionsthelawyermusttrytoconvincetheclienttoconformhisorherconducttotheboundariesofthelawbeforedisclosinganyotherwiseconfidentialinformation. Notethattheseexceptionsgenerallydonotcovercrimesthathavealreadyoccurred,eveninextremecaseswheremurderershaveconfessedthelocationofmissingbodiestotheirlawyersbutthepolicearestilllookingforthosebodies.TheU.S.SupremeCourtandmanystatesupremecourtshaveaffirmedtherightofalawyertowithholdinformationinsuchsituations.Otherwise,itwouldbeimpossibleforanycriminaldefendanttoobtainazealousdefense. Californiaisfamousforhavingoneofthestrongestdutiesofconfidentialityintheworld;itslawyersmustprotectclientconfidencesat"everyperiltohimself[orherself]"underformerCaliforniaBusinessandProfessionsCodesection6068(e).Untilanamendmentin2004(whichturnedsubsection(e)intosubsection(e)(1)andaddedsubsection(e)(2)tosection6068),Californialawyerswerenotevenpermittedtodisclosethataclientwasabouttocommitmurderorassault.TheSupremeCourtofCaliforniapromptlyamendedtheCaliforniaRulesofProfessionalConducttoconformtothenewexceptionintherevisedstatute. RecentlegislationintheUKcurtailstheconfidentialityprofessionalslikelawyersandaccountantscanmaintainattheexpenseofthestate.[2]Accountants,forexample,arerequiredtodisclosetothestateanysuspicionsoffraudulentaccountingand,even,thelegitimateuseoftaxsavingschemesifthoseschemesarenotalreadyknowntothetaxauthorities. BreachofconfidenceinEnglishlaw[edit] Mainarticle:BreachofconfidenceinEnglishlaw The"threetraditionalrequirementsofthecauseofactionforbreachofconfidence"[3]: [19] wereidentifiedbyMegarryJinCocovANClark(Engineers)Ltd(1968)inthefollowingterms:[4] Inmyjudgment,threeelementsarenormallyrequiredif,apartfromcontract,acaseofbreachofconfidenceistosucceed.First,theinformationitself,inthewordsofLordGreene,M.R.intheSaltmancaseonpage215,must"havethenecessaryqualityofconfidenceaboutit."Secondly,thatinformationmusthavebeenimpartedincircumstancesimportinganobligationofconfidence.Thirdly,theremustbeanunauthoriseduseofthatinformationtothedetrimentofthepartycommunicatingit. The1896casefeaturingtheroyalaccoucheurDrWilliamSmoultPlayfairshowedthedifferencebetweenlayandmedicalviews.PlayfairwasconsultedbyLindaKitson;heascertainedthatshehadbeenpregnantwhileseparatedfromherhusband.Heinformedhiswife,arelativeofKitson's,inorderthatsheprotectherselfandtheirdaughtersfrommoralcontagion.Kitsonsued,andthecasegainedpublicnotoriety,withhugedamagesawardedagainstthedoctor.[5] Medicalconfidentiality[edit] PartofaseriesonMedicalethics Values Primumnonnocere InformedConsent Beneficence(ethics) Confidentiality Autonomy Conflicts Capacity(law) Involuntarytreatment Dutytowarn Dutytoprotect RelatedConcepts MedicalProfession MedicalLaw Bioethics Critiques Medicalsociology vte Confidentialityiscommonlyappliedtoconversationsbetweendoctorsandpatients.Legalprotectionspreventphysiciansfromrevealingcertaindiscussionswithpatients,evenunderoathincourt.[6]Thisphysician-patientprivilegeonlyappliestosecretssharedbetweenphysicianandpatientduringthecourseofprovidingmedicalcare.[6][7] TheruledatesbacktoatleasttheHippocraticOath,whichreads:Whatever,inconnectionwithmyprofessionalservice,ornotinconnectionwithit,Iseeorhear,inthelifeofmen,whichoughtnottobespokenofabroad,Iwillnotdivulge,asreckoningthatallsuchshouldbekeptsecret. Traditionally,medicalethicshasviewedthedutyofconfidentialityasarelativelynon-negotiabletenetofmedicalpractice. UnitedStates[edit] ConfidentialityisstandardintheUnitedStatesbyHIPAAlaws,specificallythePrivacyRule,andvariousstatelaws,somemorerigorousthanHIPAA.However,numerousexceptionstotheruleshavebeencarvedoutovertheyears.Forexample,manyAmericanstatesrequirephysicianstoreportgunshotwoundstothepoliceandimpaireddriverstotheDepartmentofMotorVehicles.Confidentialityisalsochallengedincasesinvolvingthediagnosisofasexuallytransmitteddiseaseinapatientwhorefusestorevealthediagnosistoaspouse,andintheterminationofapregnancyinanunderagepatient,withouttheknowledgeofthepatient'sparents.ManystatesintheU.S.havelawsgoverningparentalnotificationinunderageabortion.[8] EuropeanUnion[edit] DuetotheEUDirective2001/20/EC,inspectorsappointedbytheMemberStateshavetomaintainconfidentialitywhenevertheygainaccesstoconfidentialinformationasaresultofthegoodclinicalpracticeinspectionsinaccordancewithapplicablenationalandinternationalrequirements.[9] Atypicalpatientdeclarationmightread: IhavebeeninformedofthebenefitthatIgainfromtheprotectionandtherightsgrantedbytheEuropeanUnionDataProtectionDirectiveandothernationallawsontheprotectionofmypersonaldata.Iagreethattherepresentativesofthesponsororpossiblythehealthauthoritiescanhaveaccesstomymedicalrecords.Myparticipationinthestudywillbetreatedasconfidential.Iwillnotbereferredtobymynameinanyreportofthestudy.Myidentitywillnotbedisclosedtoanyperson,exceptforthepurposesdescribedaboveandintheeventofamedicalemergencyorifrequiredbythelaw.Mydatawillbeprocessedelectronicallytodeterminetheoutcomeofthisstudy,andtoprovideittothehealthauthorities.Mydatamaybetransferredtoothercountries(suchastheUSA).Forthesepurposesthesponsorhastoprotectmypersonalinformationevenincountrieswhosedataprivacylawsarelessstrictthanthoseofthiscountry. HIVconfidentiality[edit] IntheUnitedKingdominformationaboutanindividual'sHIVstatusiskeptconfidentialwithintheNationalHealthService.Thisisbasedinlaw,intheNHSConstitutionandinkeyNHSrulesandprocedures.ItisalsooutlinedineveryNHSemployee'scontractofemploymentandinprofessionalstandardssetbyregulatorybodies.[10]TheNationalAIDSTrust'sConfidentialityintheNHS:YourInformation,YourRights[11]outlinestheserights.Allregisteredhealthcareprofessionalsmustabidebythesestandardsandiftheyarefoundtohavebreachedconfidentiality,theycanfacedisciplinaryaction. Ahealthcareworkersharesconfidentialinformationwithsomeoneelsewhois,orisaboutto,providethepatientdirectlywithhealthcaretomakesuretheygetthebestpossibletreatment.Theyonlyshareinformationthatisrelevanttotheircareinthatinstance,andwithconsent. Therearetwowaystogiveconsent:explicitconsentorimpliedconsent.Explicitconsentiswhenapatientclearlycommunicatestoahealthcareworker,verballyorinwritingorinsomeotherway,thatrelevantconfidentialinformationcanbeshared.Impliedconsent,meansthatapatient'sconsenttosharepersonalconfidentialinformationisassumed.Whenpersonalconfidentialinformationissharedbetweenhealthcareworkers,consentistakenasimplied. Ifapatientdoesn'twantahealthcareworkertoshareconfidentialhealthinformation,theyneedtomakethisclearanddiscussthematterwithhealthcarestaff.Patientshavetheright,inmostsituations,torefusepermissionforahealthcareprofessionaltosharetheirinformationwithanotherhealthcareprofessional,evenonegivingthemcare—butareadvised,whereappropriate,aboutthedangersofthiscourseofaction,duetopossibledruginteractions. However,inafewlimitedinstances,ahealthcareworkercansharepersonalinformationwithoutconsentifitisinthepublicinterest.TheseinstancesaresetoutinguidancefromtheGeneralMedicalCouncil,[12]whichistheregulatorybodyfordoctors.Sometimesthehealthcareworkerhastoprovidetheinformation-ifrequiredbylaworinresponsetoacourtorder. TheNationalAIDSTrusthaswrittenaguideforpeoplelivingwithHIVtoconfidentialityintheNHS.[13] Clinicalandcounselingpsychology[edit] Theethicalprincipleofconfidentialityrequiresthatinformationsharedbyaclientwithatherapistinthecourseoftreatmentisnotsharedwithothers.Thisprinciplebolstersthetherapeuticalliance,asitpromotesanenvironmentoftrust.Thereareimportantexceptionstoconfidentiality,namelywhereitconflictswiththeclinician'sdutytowarnordutytoprotect.Thisincludesinstancesofsuicidalbehaviororhomicidalplans,childabuse,elderabuseanddependentadultabuse.Recently,[when?]confidentialitylawshavebeenchanged[bywhom?]sothatdoctorsandnursesfacestrictpenaltiesiftheybreachconfidentiality. Commercialconfidentiality[edit] Somelegaljurisdictionsrecogniseacategoryofcommercialconfidentialitywherebyabusinessmaywithholdinformationonthebasisofperceivedharmto"commercialinterests".[14]Forexample:softdrinkgiantCoca-Cola'smainsyrupformularemainsatrade-secret. Bankingconfidentiality[edit] Mainarticle:Bank–clientconfidentiality Publicpolicyconcerns[edit] Confidentialityagreementsthat"seal"litigationsettlementsarenotuncommon,butthiscanleaveregulatorsandsocietyignorantofpublichazards.IntheU.S.stateofWashington,forexample,journalistsdiscoveredthatabouttwodozenmedicalmalpracticecaseshadbeenimproperlysealedbyjudges,leadingtoimproperlyweakdisciplinebythestateDepartmentofHealth.[15]Inthe1990sandearly2000s,theCatholicsexualabusescandalinvolvedanumberofconfidentialityagreementswithvictims.[16]Somestateshavepassedlawsthatlimitconfidentiality.Forexample,in1990Floridapasseda'SunshineinLitigation'lawthatlimitsconfidentialityfromconcealingpublichazards.[17]Washingtonstate,Texas,Arkansas,andLouisianahavelawslimitingconfidentialityaswell,althoughjudicialinterpretationhasweakenedtheapplicationofthesetypesoflaws.[18]IntheU.S.Congress,asimilarfederalSunshineinLitigationActhasbeenproposedbutnotpassedin2009,2011,2014,and2015.[19] Seealso[edit] Banksecrecy Classifiedinformation Confidentialityclub Confidentialreportingsystem DataProtectionAct1998 Fiduciary Integrity Matureminordoctrine Mediatransparency Mentalreservation(aformofdeceptionthatdoesnotinvolveoutrightlying) Non-disclosureagreement,alsocalledconfidentialityagreement Physician–patientprivilegeforMedicalconfidentiality Privacylaw Privilege(evidence) Protectionofsources,alsocalledconfidentialityof(journalistic)sources Sealoftheconfessional Secrecy Tradesecret Underseal(lat.obsignato) References[edit] ^Morgan,ThomasD.(1980)."ConflictsofInterestsandtheFormerClientintheModelRulesofProfessionalConduct".AmericanBarFoundationResearchJournal.5(4):993–1002.doi:10.1111/j.1747-4469.1980.tb01046.x.ISSN 0361-9486. ^InternationalBarAssociation."IBAInternationalPrinciplesonConductfortheLegalProfession"(PDF).Retrieved9March2021. ^CampbellvMGNLtd[2004]UKHL22,[2004]2AC457. ^CocovANClark(Engineers)Ltd[1969]RPC41;[1968]FSR415. ^Dally,Ann."Playfair,WilliamSmoult".OxfordDictionaryofNationalBiography(online ed.).OxfordUniversityPress.doi:10.1093/ref:odnb/35541.(SubscriptionorUKpubliclibrarymembershiprequired.) ^abDr.Coburn'sPeculiarPrivilege,2October2009 ^Beltran-Aroca,CristinaM.;Girela-Lopez,Eloy;Collazo-Chao,Eliseo;Montero-Pérez-Barquero,Manuel;Muñoz-Villanueva,MariaC.(2September2016)."Confidentialitybreachesinclinicalpractice:whathappensinhospitals?".BMCMedicalEthics.17(1):52.doi:10.1186/s12910-016-0136-y.ISSN 1472-6939.PMC 5009672.PMID 27590300. ^NotificationLawsArchived29April2009attheLibraryofCongressWebArchives ^ARWaladkhani.(2008).Conductingclinicaltrials.Atheoreticalandpracticalguide. ISBN 978-3-940934-00-0 ^"ProfessionalStandardsAuthority-Home".www.nhs.uk.Retrieved17March2018. ^"Publications-NationalAIDSTrust-NAT"(PDF).www.nat.org.uk.Retrieved17March2018. ^"GMC-Confidentiality".gmc-uk.org. ^http://nat.org.uk/media/Files/Publications/Confidentiality-July-2014_FINAL-2.pdf ^ Forexample:Paradissis,Jean-Jacques;Purdue,Michael(2007)."AccesstoEnvironmentalJusticeinUnitedKingdomLaw".InHarding,Andrew(ed.).AccesstoEnvironmentalJustice:AComparativeStudy.TheLondon-LeidenSeriesonLaw,AdministrationandDevelopment.11.MartinusNijhoffPublishers.p. 293.ISBN 9789004157835.Retrieved20October2015.Commercialconfidentialityisusuallydefinedbyreferencetocommercialinterestsofthepersonconcerned:ifdisclosurecan'prejudicetoanunreasonabledegree'commercialinterests,thenitmustnotbepermitted. ^"Whatthestatedidn'tknowaboutdoctor,malpracticesuit".TheSeattleTimes.13December2006.Retrieved20March2016. ^Goodstein,Laurie(27June2002)."AlbanyDioceseSettledAbuseCaseforAlmost$1Million".TheNewYorkTimes.ISSN 0362-4331.Retrieved21March2016. ^"ConfidentialityinSettlementAgreementsIsBadforClients,BadforLawyers,BadforJustice".www.americanbar.org.Retrieved20March2016. ^""Quality,NotQuantity:AnAnalysisofConfidentialSettlementsandLit"byAlisonLothes".scholarship.law.upenn.edu.Retrieved20March2016. ^Fan,MaryD.(18September2015)."PrivateData,PublicSafety:ABoundedAccessModelofDisclosure".SSRN 2662678.Citejournalrequires|journal=(help) Externallinks[edit] ThedictionarydefinitionofconfidentialityatWiktionary QuotationsrelatedtoConfidentialityatWikiquote vteBioethicsClassicprinciples Autonomy Beneficence Non-maleficence Justice Otherprinciples Authority Confidentiality Conscience Doctrineofdoubleeffect Equality Equity Guilt Mercy Oath Ownership Privacy Persuasion Theories Utilitarianism Deontology Consequentialism Reproduction Abortion Reproductivetechnology Genderassignment Genetics Gender Genetherapy Genetictesting Geneticmodification Death,dying,andemergentsituations Arbitration Braindeath Cardiacdeath Consensus Courtintervention Death Ethicscommittee Euthanasia Executor Familymeeting Mediation Nextofkin Healthcareproxy Suicide Transplantethics Culturaldifferences Dignity Etiquette Jewishmedicalethics Pain Suffering Religion Respect Personalconduct Abuseoftrust Continuityofcare Duty Gifts Liability Lying Misconduct Scientificmisconduct Medicalmisconduct Competence(law) Competency Incompetency Terminationofthepatient-physicianrelationship Researchethics Informedconsent Informedassent Humanrights Institutionalreviewboard Humanchallengestudy Authoritycontrol IntegratedAuthorityFile(Germany) Retrievedfrom"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Confidentiality&oldid=1057344209" Categories:ConfidentialityApplicationsofcryptographySources(journalism)SecrecyProfessionalethicsHiddencategories:WikipediaarticlesincorporatingacitationfromtheODNBPagesusingciteODNBwithidparameterWebarchivetemplateotherarchivesCS1errors:missingperiodicalArticleswithshortdescriptionShortdescriptionisdifferentfromWikidataUsedmydatesfromJune2013AllarticleswithvagueorambiguoustimeVagueorambiguoustimefromOctober2015Articleswithspecificallymarkedweasel-wordedphrasesfromOctober2015ArticleswithGNDidentifiers Navigationmenu Personaltools NotloggedinTalkContributionsCreateaccountLogin Namespaces ArticleTalk Variants expanded collapsed Views ReadEditViewhistory More expanded collapsed Search Navigation MainpageContentsCurrenteventsRandomarticleAboutWikipediaContactusDonate Contribute HelpLearntoeditCommunityportalRecentchangesUploadfile Tools WhatlinkshereRelatedchangesUploadfileSpecialpagesPermanentlinkPageinformationCitethispageWikidataitem Print/export DownloadasPDFPrintableversion Inotherprojects WikimediaCommonsWikiquote Languages CatalàDanskDeutschEspañolEsperantoفارسیFrançaisÍslenskaItalianoМакедонскиNederlands日本語NorskbokmålNorsknynorskPolskiPortuguêsРусскийSicilianuSvenskaУкраїнська中文 Editlinks