Defining Post-truth: Structures, Agents, and Styles - E ...

Structurally, post-truth relates to an erosion of the common world due to the increasing irrelevance of factual truth in public discourse. This ... Submissions Advertise Donate JoinourTeam About Home Articles BOOKS Interviews Reviews Students Resources DefiningPost-truth:Structures,Agents,andStyles Ari-ElmeriHyvönen DownloadPDF Oct222018 •Loadingviews ImagebyDavidMulder Theextensivediscussiononpost-truthpoliticsinthepasttwoyearsissufferingfromalackofsharedconceptualunderstanding.Differentauthorsusethetermdifferentlywithoutacknowledgingtheexistenceofcompetingdefinitions.Sometalkaboutthe‘deathofexpertise’andthelackofimpactofscientificfactsonpolicy.OtherscitetheOxfordDictionaries(OD)definitionasconclusive:‘circumstancesinwhichobjectivefactsarelessinfluentialinshapingpublicopinionthanappealstoemotionandpersonalbelief’. ForanyonefamiliarwiththefieldofInternationalRelations(orpoliticaltheory,philosophy,orsociology),theODdefinitionofpost-truthisboundtobeunsatisfying.Ispublicopinionnormallyshapedby‘objectivefacts’?Whatare‘objectivefacts’anyway?Aretheynecessarilyinconflictwithappealstoemotionorpersonalbelief?Andifthekindofcircumstancesdescribedhaveindeedemerged,whydidtheycomeabout?Whataretheirimplicationsfordemocraticpoliticsorinternationalrelations? Iftheterm‘post-truth’istodoanyscholarlyworkwhatsoever,Iargue,amoredirectandthoroughconceptualengagementisneeded.Concepts,afterall,aredevisedtomakephenomenamoreclearlyvisibleandopentoanalysis.Engaginginthetaskofconceptualizingpost-truthpolitics,furthermore,hasthepotentialofproductivelybroadeningthewaysinwhichtruthisapproachedinInternationalRelationsandbeyond. Thisarticleseekstoinitiateconceptualdebateonpost-truthsoastopavethewayforempiricalanalysisofthephenomenon.Iargueneitherthatwehaveenteredapost-truthera(Isuggestweleaveerastohistorians)northatpost-truthhasemergedoutofthinair.Iproposeweapproachpost-truthasacrystallizationofalongertrajectoryofdevaluingtruthinpoliticaldiscussion.Otherwiseput,weshouldneitherexclaimtheemergenceofsomethingcompletelyunforeseen,nordenyattheoutsetthatanythingnoteworthyhashappened.Mendacityisapoliticalconstant,butitsformsarenot. DrawingfromHannahArendt,Isuggestthatfactualtruthhasalimitedbutindispensableroletoplayinpluralisticpolitics,comparabletomaterialenvironmentthatbothenablesandlimitsdemocraticdebateinimportantways.Iputforwardanunderstandingofpost-truthasatwo-prongedprocessinwhichstructuresandagentsmutuallydependonandamplifyeachother. Fromanagentialpointofview,post-truthcoincideswithwhatIcall‘carelessspeech’.Carelessspeechformsanantinomyto‘fearlessspeech’,tothecourageousactoftellingthetruthinthefaceofdangerthatMichelFoucaultanalyzedinhislecturestowardstheendofhislife.ItalsorelatestoanArendtianunderstandingof‘carefortheworld’asapreconditionofdemocraticpolitics.ForArendt,theworldisashorthandforthecommon,politicalin-betweenspacethatbothbringsustogetherandseparatesus.Itisaspaceinwhichthingsbecomepublic,i.e.objectsofmeaningfuldisagreementthatopenthemselvesupfordifferentperspectives.Crucially,thecommonworlddoesnotsustainitself,butrequirescare,attentionandattendance.Oneofthemainmodalitiesforsuchcareisdebatethatacknowledgesadisagreementonsomething(anevent,practice,law,socialdevelopment)thatliesbetweenusbutshowsitselfdifferentlytoeachofourperspectives. Carelessspeechisliterally‘freefromcare’,unconcernednotonlywithtruthbutalsowiththeworldasacommonspaceinwhichthingsbecomepublic.Itmeansunwillingnesstoengagewithotherperspectives,areluctancetoacceptthatspeechhasrepercussionsandwordsmatter.Itinvolvescreatinguncertaintyoverwhetherwhatissaidaloudisactuallymeant;itmeansbelievingthatanythingcanbeunsaid.LikeHarryFrankfurt’snotionof‘bullshit’–frequentlyinvokedinreferencetopost-truth–carelessspeechisindifferenttoitstruth-value.Unliketheformer,however,carelessspeechdoesnotbuildoncarefullycraftedemptystatementsthatsoundgoodbutarenearlydevoidofmeaning.Ratherthantryingtopersuade,carelessspeechseekstocreateconfusionandbringdemocraticdebateintoahalt. Structurally,post-truthrelatestoanerosionofthecommonworldduetotheincreasingirrelevanceoffactualtruthinpublicdiscourse.Thisprocesscanbetracedtochangesinthemedia-economy-politicscomplex.Theemergenceofthe‘Lies,Inc.’andthegeneralriseofpublicrelations-ledpoliticshavesubstantiallycontributedtothecynicismoverfacts.Theincreasingoverlapofmedia,politics,andentertainment,togetherwithdrasticchangesinthemediaecosystemitselfandthedecliningtrustinmassmedia,arealsotobetakenintoaccount.TheycreatetheconditionsforthesubjectivizationofsharedfactsandopenthedoorsforactorslikeDonaldTrump,capableofcapitalizingrealityTVexperienceforthepurposesofmanipulatingthemediaandpublicdiscourse. FactsandPolitics  Ifwearetounderstandcurrentpolitics,Iargue,criticalscholarsneedtosupplementtheprevalent‘socialconstructionofthefactual’approachwithamorepolyvalenttakeontruthandfactuality.IsuggestthatHannahArendt’sdistinctionbetweenrationalandfactualtruths,althoughitsimplifiesalot,ishelpfulforunderstandingpost-truth.Rationaltruthsaretruthswhoseoppositeisnotalie,butillusionandopinion(philosophicaltruths)orerrorandignorance(scientific truths).TheyalsocontainthePlatonic‘truestandardofhumanconduct’.Rationaltruths,Arendtargues,arerarelypoliticallyrelevant. Whatweshouldbeconcernedaboutisthefateoffactualtruths.Theyindeed‘constitutetheverytextureofthepoliticalrealm’.Byfacts,ArendtdoesnotprimarilymeanwhatMaryPooveyhascalled‘modernfacts’–namely,numericalrepresentationsofscientificandtechnocraticknowledge.Onthecontrary,factsemergefromthedeedsofpluralhumanbeings,astheLatinwordfactum(thingsmade,deed,action)suggests.Thiscloserelationshiptoactionmakesthemcontingent.Sinceactionisfree,factshave‘noconclusivereasonwhateverforbeingwhattheyare’.Becauseoftheircontingentoriginandthedependenceonwitnessing,factsarehighlyfragileandvulnerable.Ifweloseasetofparticularfacts,‘norationaleffortwilleverbringthemback’. FactualtruthismostlyaboutmodestveritiesoftheMohamedBouaziziself-immolatedon17December2010type.Giventheirdependenceontestimonyandstorytelling,theirexistenceiswithoutadoubtsociallyconstructed.Inpolitics,Arendtargued,appearancesconstitutereality.Accordingly,Iargue,factsmustalsobeseenasreal,yetnotasreflectionsofthingsastheyarepriortoanycontactwithhumanperspectives.Therearenoabsolutecriteriademarcatingtruthfromopinion,value,ortheframe/discoursewithinwhichthefactsareplacedorfromwhichtheyemerge.Yet,factshaveacuriousperemptoryqualitytothem–theycanevenhauntus.TheetymologyoftheLatinfactumisrootedinthewordfieri,whichreferstobecoming;hence,factsarewhatinescapablyhasbecometherealityforus. Intermsofepistemicvalidity,mostscholars(andothers)tendto–atleastimplicitlyandperformatively–subscribetosomeformof‘everydayrealism’whenitcomestofactsintheabovementionedcategory.Askepticmightargue,nevertheless,thatthetypesoffactualtruthjustdescribedaremostlyirrelevant.Theveritiestheycontainareso‘modest’thatnothinginterestingfollowsfromthem.Suchargumentneedlesslydeprecatesthepoliticalroleoffactualtruth.Itassumesfactsshouldbecapableofdirectlydictatingpolicieslesttheyaredoomedtoirrelevance.ButasArendtpointsout,theroleoffactsistoinformopinions,toconstitutethecommonreferencepointforwidelydifferingopinions‘inspiredbydifferentinterestsandpassions’.Factsthemselvesbecomemeaningfulonlythroughtheprocessofexchangingopinionsaboutthem. Suchagonalunderstandingoffactshasnothingtodowiththeliberalmarketplaceofideas,whichissometimesevokedasaprocessthatleadsto‘thetruth’inthepublicsphere.Noristruthaboutsharingasetofvaluesinthesenseofpost-historicalliberalconsensus.Insteadofbeingdistilledfrom thepluralityofperspectives,truthinvitesandmakespossibletheexpressionofdifferentviewpoints.Factualtruthstandsatthebeginningoftheprocessesofagonaldebate,ofwooingandpersuasion,notattheirend.Opinionsdependonaminimalgroundofsharedfactssothattheycanbeopinionsaboutsomething,thatis,differentperspectivesonsomethingsharedandnotsubjectivewhimsorprejudices.Thus,denyingfactsmeansundoingthebasicsupportiveinfrastructureofdemocraticpolitics. Factualtruths(ormattersoffact)canbecomparedtowhatBonnieHonighasinarecentbook called‘publicthings’.InHonig’susage,thisphrasereferstothematerialinfrastructure,(very)broadlyconstrued,thatgatherspeopletogetherbothphysicallyandsymbolically.Extendingthisnotionof‘publicthings’totheimmaterialrealmallowsustoseehowthe‘despotic’characteroffactualtruthissimilartothelimitingconditionsofthematerialthingsthatenabletheconstitutionofapublic.Factsthusbecomeanenablingconstraint,alimitationthatatthesametimefacilitates,encouragesandstimulatesdebate. Similarly,takingcareofthefacts,tellingthetruth,canbeconceivedofasapracticeofcaringfortheworld.Indeed,itis‘nolessaworld-buildingactivitythanthebuildingofhouses’. Asitiswithphysicalinfrastructureandpoliticalinstitutions,furthermore,factsbecomeaheapofmeaninglessstatementsifweceasetotalkaboutthemfromourvaryingperspectives.Thecomparisonisalsohelpfulinthatnoonewouldexpectguidelinesonwhattodofromthematerialenvironment,justasnoonewouldcompletelyignorethelimitationsitposesonouractions. WhatisPost-truthPolitics? Post-truthpolitics,Icontend,oughttobeunderstoodasapredicamentinwhichpoliticalspeechisincreasinglydetachedfromthefactualinfrastructure.Consequently,ourabilitytoreacttopoliticaleventsandtoengageinademocraticprocessofopinion-formationiscompromised.Thisdefinitiondiffersinparticularfromthosethatequatepost-truthwiththedeathofexpertise.Ialsothinkwemustbemuchmorepreciseregardingtheroleofemotionsintheproductionofpost-truth.Defendingtruthmightinvolveasmuchemotionasviolatingit. Mostpotentexamplesofpost-truthpoliticsasastyleavailabletoindividualpoliticiansareinstancesinwhichoutrightliesaboutthingsthattechnicallyanyonecouldverifyareused–albeitperhapsnotalwaysconsciously–forvariouspoliticalpurposestowardsbothadversariesandone’sownsupporters.Thiscanmean,forinstance,denyingsomethingobvious,trivial,orseeminglyuncontroversialormakingupaneventthatneverhappened.BothtendenciesarefrequentamongtheTrumpadministration,asexemplifiedbythedisputeovertheinaugurationaudience,andKellyanneConway’sinvocationof‘BowlingGreenmassacre’. Suchclaims,Iargue,arenotprimarilyattemptstoconvinceorpersuade.Onthecontrary,theirmainimpactisthecreationofconfusion,anger,anddisorientation.Hijackingattentionisthekeyhere,andhaslittletodowithlettingthebestargumentwin.Outrageouslyfalseclaims seektomake‘normal’politicaldebateandcriticalscrutinyofpoliciesimpossible.Theyeasilydirectattentionawayfromthedetailsofpolicies,andcanshapepublicdiscourseevenwhenbeingrefuted.Counteractingsuchplay-dirty-to-winstrategieshasprovenchallenging. EventhemoreconventionalarrayofliesproducedbyTrumparecharacterizedbycarelessness,shamelessnessandnumerousness.Manyofhisliesaremisrepresentationsoflong-termprocessesinhisownfavor,falsestatementsaboutmediacoverage,orliesaboutnumbers–mostrecentlyaboutthenumberofvictimsofhurricaneMariainPuertoRico.Whenliesbecomeprevalentenough,themediaanddemocraticaudienceeasilybecomedisoriented,losethebasiccoordinatesthatusuallysupportcriticalscrutiny. Thetypeofmendacitylinkedtopost-truthiscloselyrelatedtowhatHarryFrankfurtfamouslydescribedas‘bullshit’.Yet,Iargue,thetwoarenotexactlysynonymous.Bothformsofspeechareindifferenttowardsthetruth-valueofstatements,whichdistinguishesthemfromtraditionallies.Frankfurt,however,alsodescribesbullshitasbeing‘carefullywrought’andrequiring‘thoughtfulattentiontodetail’.Itcannotbebasedonwhim,butisproducedby‘exquisitelysophisticatedcraftsmenwho–withthehelpofadvancedanddemandingtechniquesofmarketresearch,ofpublicopinionpolling,ofpsychologicaltesting,andsoforth–dedicatethemselvestirelesslytogettingeverywordandimagetheyproduceexactlyright.’ IdonotthinkthisdescriptioncanbeappliedverbatimtoTrumpandotherpost-truthpoliticians.Certainly,carefullyanddeliberatelydesignedpublicimageshavenotgoneanywhere.Butthearchetypicalbullshittersareneoliberal austeritypoliticians,technocrats,andthelike.Theirvocabulariesareamixofbanalities,sound-bitescreatedwithadvertisingagencies,commonsense‘truths’andcorporatejargon:‘responsibility’,‘tighteningthebelts’,‘benchmarks’,andsoforth.Thistypeofbullshitpavesthewayforpost-truth,andevenplaysaroleinit,buttheyarenotthesame. Carelessspeech,ratherthansellinganicelypackagedrespectablecharacter,breachestheveryideaofsuchpacking.Insteadofcarefullyspinningpartialfactsaroundapolicyprogram(boring!),thepoliticalimageofpost-truthpoliticianisbuiltaroundunpredictability,carelessnesstothedetail,andthesystematicuseofblatantlies.Itsmainaimisnottopersuadeorconvince,buttoattractattention,confuse,andperplex.Abullshitterprefersnottobecalledoutontheirbullshit;thepost-truthpoliticiandoesnotcare.Itappearsthatanewemotionalregimehasemerged.Wehavemovedfrom‘truthiness’(feelingliketruth)toastatewhereevenasemblanceoftruthfulnessisnotrequired.Howhassuchsceneemerged? AccountingforPost-truth AccordingtoastudyofUSpoliticsconductedattheRANDCorporation,whatmakesthecurrentsituationpotentiallyuniqueisthemistrustofinformationsourcesandthelackofsharedfacts.This,amongotherfactors,makespossiblethesuccessofcarelessspeech.Factshaveofteninhistoryyieldedtoprejudicesandsubjectivewhims,butintheRANDstudy,noclearprecedentswerefoundintheUShistoryforthecurrentmajordisagreementoverbasicfactsandtheirinterpretations.Alsomistrustofcommonlyrecognizedreliablesourcesofinformation‘seemstobemorepronouncednow’. Someblameintellectualcurrentsofthesedevelopments.Iargueonthecontrarythattheissuecomesdowntomoremundanequestionsregardingthechangesintheeconomy-media-politicscomplexandtheincreasingoverlapbetweenthethreeareasofthatcomplex.Indeed,Americans’trustinthemassmediahasdroppedfrom72%in1976(afterWatergate/Vietnam)to32%today.Atthesametime,visualmediahavealmostcompletelyreplacedwrittenword.ThedailycirculationofnewspapersintheUShasdropped to36,7%ofhouseholdsin2010from123,6%(sic)inthe1950s. Equallyimportantasthefallingcredibilityofthemediaistheamalgamofmedia,economicrationality,andpoliticsintheformofPublicRelations(PR)thathasslowlyevolvedtoitscurrentformduringthetwentiethcentury.PRisessentiallyaboutcarefullycraftedpublicimages.Henceitislinkedmoredirectlytobullshitthantocarelessspeech.PRisacrucialelement,however,increatingthestructuralconditionsthatallowcarelessspeechtobloom. WritingasaresponsetothePentagonpapersinthe1970s,Arendtwarnedthatduetothemass-mediatednatureofoursociety,theimagecreatedbyPRpracticesisusuallymuchmorevisiblethanthe‘original’.Theimagebeginstosubstituteforreality.Itdoesnotmatterwhetherpoliciesleadtoanyhoped-fortangibleoutcomesaslongas‘theaudience’,whentheyformtheirjudgments,canbemadetosummonuptheimagecraftedformediacirculationratherthan‘thestark,nakedbrutalityoffacts,ofthingsastheyare’.Indeed,thiscanattimesbetheexplicitaimofPR. InadditiontothePRcampaignsforpoliticians,theUShasseentheemergenceofahighlyorganizedPRindustryservingcorporateinterest byfalsehoodsandsociallyengineeredsciencedenial.InRussia,severalcommentatorshavedescribedtheuniquerealityofpost-Sovietcapitalismintermsoflivinginasimulatedreality.SuchPRindustryhasprovenextremelycapableofmanipulatingthemediaandhavinganimpactontheirmodeofoperation.Bothmediaandcitizenshaveincreasinglyadoptedtheviewthattherearealwaystwosidestoanissueandhencenodefinitivetruthassuch.ForArendt,thiscangiverisetoa‘peculiarkindofcynicism’inwhichwerefusetobelieveanytruths,nomatterhowwellestablished.Suchcynicismcanhavedevastatingconsequences.Itdestroys‘thesensebywhichwetakeourbearingsintherealworld—andthecategoryoftruthvs.falsehoodisamongthementalmeanstothisend’. Russiaisanenthrallingexamplehere.AcombinationofstatecontrolledTVandageneralethosofmoldingreality,aspicturedbyPeterPomerantsevandthenovelsofViktorPelevin,createaworldinwhich‘everythingisPR’,orasPomerantsevtitlehasit,NothingisTrueandEverythingisPossible.The‘politicaltechnologies’appliedbyPutinseektocreatetheimpressionthateverybodyislyinganyway,sopoliticalstrugglebecomesamatterofcreatingthebestliesandthemostappealingcharacter. BesidesPR,twothingsinthepolitics-economy-mediacomplexareworthemphasizing.First,inthelast50years,theveryconceptofnewshasundergonetremendouschange.Upuntil1960sand1970s,newsprogramminghadnotyetadoptedtheideaofconstantstreamingor,evenmoreimportantly,ofmakingprofit.Thisleftmuchmoretimeforbackgroundworkandinvestigativejournalism.Sincethe1970s,however,cablenews,24-hournewscycle,andtheideaofmakingprofithaveturnednewsintoentertainment.Anditturnsoutthatcontroversyandcollusionofpre-determinedopinionsismoreentertainingthatfacts. Inthelastdecade,socialmediahasaddeditsowntwisttothis.Manyscholarshavepointedoutthatsocialmediaamplifybias,providedistractionsandmakeuslessreceptivetoinconvenientfacts.Inthe2016election,itwasalsoapparentthatsocialmediaallowedthecreationofaradicalright-wingmediaecosystemcapableofinsulatingitsfollowersfromnonconformingnewsandbuildingactivelinkstoconspiracysites. Finally,toconcludeonamorespeculativenote,itisworthconsideringhowthetransformationofeconomyaffectsourgeneralexperienceofreality.Weliveinaworlddefinedbyserviceandexperiencecenteredeconomy.Ifmycomparisonoffactstophysicalenvironmentholds,wemightwondertowhatextentourrelationtofactsresonateswiththeincreasinglyfluid,affective,andambivalentroleofphysicalobjectsinourlivesintheageofon-demandstreamingofaffectiveexperiences.Weincreasinglyconsumeimagesandexperiencesratherthanphysicalobjects.Thus,wedecreasinglyexperiencethingsintheirstubbornthereness.Perhapswealsowanttostreamourpersonalized,on-demand‘facts’. Notes ThisarticledrawsfromHyvönen(2018),“CarelessSpeech:ConceptualizingPost-TruthPolitics”.PublishedinNewPerspectives:InterdisciplinaryJournalofCentral&EasternEuropeanPoliticsandInternationalRelations. FurtherReadingonE-InternationalRelations TeachingandLearninginaPost-TruthMoment Post-Truth,ComplicityandInternationalPolitics PopulistChallengeandPoliticalJudgement TheFarRightintheUSandtheReligiousRightinIran IntheDawnofaNewBarbaricEra PerformanceandPoliticsFiftyYearsAfter‘SocietyoftheSpectacle’ AboutTheAuthor(s) Ari-ElmeriHyvönenisapost-doctoralresearcherattheUniversityofTampere,Finland.HehaspublishedseveralarticlesonthepoliticalthoughtofHannahArendtandsuchtopicsastheArabSpring,contentiousaction,andresilienceinsecuritypolitics.Hisworkhasappeared,amongotherplaces,inPoliticalTheory,EuropeanJournalofSocialTheory,Redescriptions,Resilience:InternationalPolicies,PracticesandDiscourses,andineditedvolumespublishedbyECPRPressandBloomsbury.HehasbeenavisitingfellowattheHannahArendtCenterforPoliticsandHumanitiesatBardCollege(2014–2015).Twitter:@AriElmeriHyvnen. EditorialCredit(s) MajerMa,AnanyaSharma TagsInternationalPoliticalEconomyMediaPost-Truth PleaseConsiderDonating Beforeyoudownloadyourfreee-book,pleaseconsiderdonatingto supportopenaccesspublishing. E-IRisanindependentnon-profitpublisherrunbyanallvolunteerteam. Yourdonationsallowustoinvestinnewopenaccesstitlesandpayour bandwidthbillstoensurewekeepourexistingtitlesfreetoview.Any amount,inanycurrency,isappreciated.Manythanks! Donationsarevoluntaryandnotrequiredtodownloadthee-book-yourlinktodownloadisbelow. DownloadPDF Subscribe Getourweeklyemail Submit