Merchant - Wikipedia

A merchant is a person who trades in commodities produced by other people, especially one who trades with foreign countries. Historically, a merchant is ... Merchant FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia Jumptonavigation Jumptosearch Forotheruses,seeMerchant(disambiguation). Businesspersonwhotradesincommoditiesthatwereproducedbyothers MerchantsfromHollandandtheMiddleEasttrading. Amerchantisapersonwhotradesincommoditiesproducedbyotherpeople,especiallyonewhotradeswithforeigncountries.Historically,amerchantisanyonewhoisinvolvedinbusinessortrade.Merchantshaveoperatedforaslongasindustry,commerce,andtradehaveexisted.In16th-centuryEurope,twodifferenttermsformerchantsemerged:meerseniersreferredtolocaltraders(suchasbakersandgrocers)andkoopman(Dutch:koopman)referredtomerchantswhooperatedonaglobalstage,importingandexportinggoodsovervastdistancesandofferingadded-valueservicessuchascreditandfinance. Thestatusofthemerchanthasvariedduringdifferentperiodsofhistoryandamongdifferentsocieties.Inmoderntimes,thetermmerchanthasoccasionallybeenusedtorefertoabusinesspersonorsomeoneundertakingactivities(commercialorindustrial)forthepurposeofgeneratingprofit,cashflow,sales,andrevenueusingacombinationofhuman,financial,intellectualandphysicalcapitalwithaviewtofuelingeconomicdevelopmentandgrowth. Ascaleorbalanceisoftenusedtosymboliseamerchant Merchantshavebeenknownforaslongashumanshaveengagedintradeandcommerce.MerchantsandmerchantnetworksoperatedinancientBabyloniaandAssyria,China,Egypt,Greece,India,Persia,Phoenicia,andRome.DuringtheEuropeanmedievalperiod,arapidexpansionintradeandcommerceledtotheriseofawealthyandpowerfulmerchantclass.TheEuropeanageofdiscoveryopenedupnewtradingroutesandgaveEuropeanconsumersaccesstoamuchbroaderrangeofgoods.Fromthe1600s,goodsbegantotravelmuchfurtherdistancesastheyfoundtheirwayintogeographicallydispersedmarket-places.FollowingtheopeningofAsiatoEuropeantradeandthediscoveryoftheNewWorld,merchantsimportedgoodsoververylongdistances:calicoclothfromIndia,porcelain,silkandteafromChina,spicesfromIndiaandSouth-EastAsiaandtobacco,sugar,rumandcoffeefromtheNewWorld.Bytheeighteenthcentury,anewtypeofmanufacturer-merchanthadstartedtoemergeandmodernbusinesspracticeswerebecomingevident. Contents 1Etymologyandusage 2Typesofmerchant 3History 3.1Merchantsinantiquity 3.2Merchantsinthemedievalperiod 3.3Merchantsinthemodernera 4Inart 5Inarchitecture 6Seealso 7References 8Sourcesandfurtherreading 9Externallinks Etymologyandusage[edit] CostumesofmerchantsfromBrabantandAntwerp,engravingbyAbrahamdeBruyn,1577 TheEnglishterm,merchantcomesfromtheMiddleEnglish,marchant,whichitselforiginatedfromtheVulgarLatinmercatantormercatans,formedfrompresentparticipleofmercatare('totrade,totrafficortodealin').[1]Thetermreferstoanytypeofreseller,butcanalsobeusedwithaspecificqualifiertosuggestapersonwhodealsinagivencharacteristicsuchasspeedmerchant,whichrefertosomeonewhoenjoysfastdriving;noisemerchant,whichreferstoagroupofmusicalperformers;[2]dreammerchant,whichreferstosomeonewhopeddlesidealisticvisionaryscenarios;merchantofwar,whichrefersdisparaginglytoproponentsofwar.[citationneeded] ElizabethHonighasarguedthatconceptsrelatingtotheroleofamerchantbegantochangeinthemid-16thcentury.TheDutchterm,koopman,becamerathermorefluidduringthe16thcenturywhenAntwerpwasthemostglobalmarkettowninEurope.Twodifferentterms,foramerchant,begantobeused,meerseniersreferredtolocalmerchantsincludingbakers,grocers,sellersofdairyproductsandstall-holders,whilethealternateterm,koopman,referredtothosewhotradedingoodsorcreditonalargescale.Thisdistinctionwasnecessarytoseparatethedailytradethatthegeneralpopulationunderstoodfromtherisingranksoftraderswhotookuptheirplacesonaworldstageandwereseenasquitedistantfromeverydayexperience.[3] Typesofmerchant[edit] Thissectionneedsadditionalcitationsforverification.Pleasehelpimprovethisarticlebyaddingcitationstoreliablesources.Unsourcedmaterialmaybechallengedandremoved.Findsources: "Merchant" – news ·newspapers ·books ·scholar ·JSTOR(August2021)(Learnhowandwhentoremovethistemplatemessage) Broadly,merchantscanbeclassifiedintotwocategories: Awholesalemerchantoperatesinthechainbetweentheproducerandretailmerchant,typicallydealinginlargequantitiesofgoods.[4]Inotherwords,awholesalerdoesnotselldirectlytoend-users.Somewholesalemerchantsonlyorganizethemovementofgoodsratherthanmovethegoodsthemselves. Aretailmerchantorretailersellsmerchandisetoend-usersorconsumers(includingbusinesses),usuallyinsmallquantities.Ashop-keeperisanexampleofaretailmerchant. However,theterm'merchant'isoftenusedinavarietyofspecialisedcontextssuchasinmerchantbanker,merchantnavyormerchantservices. History[edit] Seealso:Retail§ history,Market(place),andHistoryofmarketing Merchantsinantiquity[edit] Phoeniciantraderoutemap Merchantshaveexistedaslongashumanshaveconductedbusiness,tradeorcommerce.[5][6][7][8][9][10]Amerchantclassoperatedinmanypre-modernsocieties.Open-air,publicmarkets,wheremerchantsandtraderscongregated,functionedinancientBabyloniaandAssyria,China,Egypt,Greece,India,Persia,PhoeniciaandRome.Thesemarketstypicallyoccupiedaplaceinthetown'scentre.Surroundingthemarket,skilledartisans,suchasmetal-workersandleatherworkers,occupiedpremisesinalleywaysthatledtotheopenmarket-place.Theseartisansmayhavesoldwaresdirectlyfromtheirpremises,butalsopreparedgoodsforsaleonmarketdays.[11][needquotationtoverify]InancientGreecemarketsoperatedwithintheagora(openspace),andinancientRomeintheforum.Rome'sforumsincludedtheForumRomanum,theForumBoariumandTrajan'sForum.TheForumBoarium,oneofaseriesofforavenaliaorfoodmarkets,originated,asitsnamesuggests,asacattlemarket.[12] Trajan'sForumwasavastexpanse,comprisingmultiplebuildingswithshopsonfourlevels.TheRomanforumwasarguablytheearliestexampleofapermanentretailshop-front.[13] Inantiquity,exchangeinvolveddirectsellingthroughpermanentorsemi-permanentretailpremisessuchasstall-holdersatmarketplacesorshop-keeperssellingfromtheirownpremisesorthroughdoor-to-doordirectsalesviamerchantsorpeddlers.[citationneeded]Thenatureofdirectsellingcentredaroundtransactionalexchange,wherethegoodswereonopendisplay,allowingbuyerstoevaluatequalitydirectlythroughvisualinspection.Relationshipsbetweenmerchantandconsumerwereminimal[14]oftenplayingintopublicconcernsaboutthequalityofproduce.[15] PhoenicianmerchantstradedacrosstheentireMediterraneanregion ThePhoeniciansbecamewellknownamongstcontemporariesas"tradersinpurple"–areferencetotheirmonopolyoverthepurpledyeextractedfromthemurexshell.[16]ThePhoenicianspliedtheirshipsacrosstheMediterranean,becomingamajortradingpowerbythe9thcenturyBCE.Phoenicianmerchanttradersimportedandexportedwood,textiles,glassandproducesuchaswine,oil,driedfruitandnuts.TheirtradingnecessitatedanetworkofcoloniesalongtheMediterraneancoast,stretchingfrommodern-dayCretethroughtoTangiers(inpresent-dayMorocco)andnorthwardtoSardinia.[17]ThePhoeniciansnotonlytradedintangiblegoods,butwerealsoinstrumentalintransportingthetrappingsofculture.ThePhoenicians'extensivetradenetworksnecessitatedconsiderablebook-keepingandcorrespondence.Inaround1500 BCE,thePhoeniciansdevelopedascriptwhichwasmucheasiertolearnthatthepictographicsystemsusedinancientEgyptandMesopotamia.Phoeniciantradersandmerchantswerelargelyresponsibleforspreadingtheiralphabetaroundtheregion.[18]PhoenicianinscriptionshavebeenfoundinarchaeologicalsitesatanumberofformerPhoeniciancitiesandcoloniesaroundtheMediterranean,suchasByblos(inpresent-dayLebanon)andCarthageinNorthAfrica.[19] WallpaintingfromPompeiidepictingeverydayactivitiesatamarket-place Mosaicshowinggarumcontainer,fromthehouseofUmbriciusScaurusofPompeii.Theinscriptionwhichreads"G(ari)F(los)SCO(mbri)SCAURIEXOFFI(CI)NASCAURI"hasbeentranslatedas"Theflowerofgarum,madeofthemackerel,aproductofScaurus,fromtheshopofScaurus" Thesocialstatusofthemerchantclassvariedacrosscultures;rangingfromhighstatus(thememberseveneventuallyachievingtitlessuchasthatofMerchantPrinceorNabob)tolowstatus,asinChina,GreeceandRomancultures,owingtothepresumeddistastefulnessofprofitingfrom"mere"traderatherthanfromlabororthelaborofothersasinagricultureandcraftsmanship.[20]TheRomansdefinedmerchantsortradersinaverynarrowsense.Merchantswerethosewhoboughtandsoldgoods,whilelandownerswhosoldtheirownproducewerenotclassedasmerchants.Beingalandownerwasa"respectable"occupation.Ontheotherhand,theRomansdidnotconsidertheactivitiesofmerchants"respectable".[21]IntheancientcitiesoftheMiddleEast,wherethebazaarwasthecity'sfocalpointandheartbeat,merchantswhoworkedinbazaarenjoyedhighsocialstatusandformedpartoflocalelites.[22]InMedievalWesternEurope,theChristianchurch,whichcloselyassociatedmerchants'activitieswiththesinofusury,criticisedthemerchantclass,stronglyinfluencingattitudestowardsthem.[23] InGreco-Romansociety,merchantstypicallydidnothavehighsocialstatus,thoughtheymayhaveenjoyedgreatwealth.[24]UmbriciusScauras,forexample,wasamanufacturerandtraderoffishsauce(alsoknownasgarum)inPompeii,circa35C.E.Hisvilla,situatedinoneofthewealthierdistrictsofPompeii,wasverylargeandornatelydecoratedinashowofsubstantialpersonalwealth.Mosaicpatternsinthefloorofhisatriumweredecoratedwithimagesofamphoraebearinghispersonalbrandandinscribedwithqualityclaims.Oneoftheinscriptionsonthemosaicamphorareads"G(ari)F(los)SCO[m]/SCAURI/EXOFFI[ci]/NASCAU/RI"whichtranslatesas"Theflowerofgarum,madeofthemackerel,aproductofScaurus,fromtheshopofScaurus".Scauras'fishsaucehadareputationforveryhighqualityacrosstheMediterranean;itsfametravelledasfarawayasmodernsouthernFrance.[25]OthernotableRomanmerchantsincluded:MarcusJuliusAlexander(16–44CE),SergiusOrata(fl.c.95BCE)andAnniusPlocamus(1stcenturyCE).[citationneeded] IntheRomanworld,localmerchantsservedtheneedsofthewealthierlandowners.Whilethelocalpeasantry,whoweregenerallypoor,reliedonopen-airmarketplacestobuyandsellproduceandwares,majorproducerssuchasthegreatestatesweresufficientlyattractiveformerchantstocalldirectlyattheirfarm-gates.Theverywealthylandownersmanagedtheirowndistribution,whichmayhaveinvolvedexporting.[26]Marketswerealsoimportantcentresofsociallife,andmerchantshelpedtospreadnewsandgossip.[27] Thenatureofexportmarketsinantiquityiswelldocumentedinancientsourcesandinarchaeologicalcase-studies.BothGreekandRomanmerchantsengagedinlong-distancetrade.AChinesetextrecordsthataRomanmerchantnamedLunreachedsouthernChinain226CE.ArchaeologistshaverecoveredRomanobjectsdatingfromtheperiod27BCEto37CEfromexcavationsitesasfarafieldastheKushanandIndusports.TheRomanssoldpurpleandyellowdyes,brassandiron;theyacquiredincense,balsam,expensiveliquidmyrrhandspicesfromtheNearEastandIndia,finesilkfromChina[28]andfinewhitemarbledestinedfortheRomanwholesalemarketfromArabia.[29] ForRomanconsumers,thepurchaseofgoodsfromtheEastwasasymbolofsocialprestige.[30] Merchantsinthemedievalperiod[edit] MarcoPolowasamongtheearliestEuropeanmerchantstotraveltotheOrient,helpingtoopenituptotradeinthe13thcentury MedievalEnglandandEuropewitnessedarapidexpansionintradeandtheriseofawealthyandpowerfulmerchantclass.BlintiffhasinvestigatedtheearlyMedievalnetworksofmarkettownsandsuggeststhatbythe12thcenturytherewasanupsurgeinthenumberofmarkettownsandtheemergenceofmerchantcircuitsastradersbulkedupsurplusesfromsmallerregional,differentdaymarketsandresoldthematthelargercentralisedmarkettowns.Peddlersoritinerantmerchantsfilledanygapsinthedistributionsystem.[31]Fromthe11thcentury,theCrusadeshelpedtoopenupnewtraderoutesintheNearEast,whiletheadventurerandmerchant,MarcoPolostimulatedinterestinthefarEastinthe13thcentury.Medievalmerchantsbegantotradeinexoticgoodsimportedfromdistantshoresincludingspices,wine,food,furs,finecloth(notablysilk),glass,jewelleryandmanyotherluxurygoods.Markettownsbegantospreadacrossthelandscapeduringthemedievalperiod.[citationneeded] MerchantguildsbegantoformduringtheMedievalperiod.AfraternityformedbythemerchantsofTielinGelderland(inpresent-dayNetherlands)in1020isbelievedtobethefirstexampleofaguild.Theterm,guildwasfirstusedforgildamercatoriaandreferredtobodyofmerchantsoperatingoutofSt.Omer,Franceinthe11thcentury.Similarly,London'sHansewasformedinthe12thcentury.[32]Theseguildscontrolledthewaythattradewastobeconductedandcodifiedrulesgoverningtheconditionsoftrade.Rulesestablishedbymerchantguildswereoftenincorporatedintothechartersgrantedtomarkettowns.Intheearly12thcentury,aconfederationofmerchantguilds,formedouttheGermancitiesofLübeckandHamburg,knownas"TheHanseaticLeague"cametodominatetradearoundtheBalticSea.Bythe13thand14thcenturies,merchantguildshadsufficientresourcestohaveerectedguildhallsinmanymajormarkettowns.[33] MediterraneanportwithTurkishmerchantsbyAdriaenvanderKabel,1682 Duringthethirteenthcentury,Europeanbusinessesbecamemorepermanentandwereabletomaintainsedentarymerchantsandasystemofagents.Merchantsspecialisedinfinancing,organisationandtransportwhileagentsweredomiciledoverseasandactedonbehalfofaprincipal.ThesearrangementsfirstappearedontheroutefromItalytotheLevant,butbytheendofthethirteenthcenturymerchantcoloniescouldbefoundfromParis,London,Bruges,Seville,BarcelonaandMontpellier.Overtimethesepartnershipsbecamemorecommonplaceandledtothedevelopmentoflargetradingcompanies.Thesedevelopmentsalsotriggeredinnovationssuchasdouble-entrybook-keeping,commercialaccountancy,internationalbankingincludingaccesstolinesofcredit,marineinsuranceandcommercialcourierservices.Thesedevelopmentsaresometimesknownasthecommercialrevolution.[34] LucaClericihasmadeadetailedstudyofVicenza'sfoodmarketduringthesixteenthcentury.Hefoundthatthereweremanydifferenttypesofmerchantsoperatingoutofthemarkets.Forexample,inthedairytrade,cheeseandbutterwassoldbythemembersoftwocraftguilds(i.e.,cheesemongerswhowereshopkeepers)andthatoftheso-called‘resellers’(hucksterssellingawiderangeoffoodstuffs),andbyothersellerswhowerenotenrolledinanyguild.Cheesemongers’shopsweresituatedatthetownhallandwereverylucrative.Resellersanddirectsellersincreasedthenumberofsellers,thusincreasingcompetition,tothebenefitofconsumers.Directsellers,whobroughtproducefromthesurroundingcountryside,soldtheirwaresthroughthecentralmarketplaceandpricedtheirgoodsatconsiderablylowerratesthancheesemongers.[35] AmerchantmakinguptheaccountbyKatsushikaHokusai. From1300throughtothe1800salargenumberofEuropeancharteredandmerchantcompanieswereestablishedtoexploitinternationaltradingopportunities.TheCompanyofMerchantAdventurersofLondon,charteredin1407,controlledmostofthefineclothimports[36]whiletheHanseaticLeaguecontrolledmostofthetradeintheBalticSea.AdetailedstudyofEuropeantradebetweenthethirteenthandfifteenthcenturydemonstratesthattheEuropeanageofdiscoveryactedasamajordriverofchange.In1600,goodstravelledrelativelyshortdistances:grain5–10miles;cattle40–70miles;woolandwollencloth20–40miles.However,intheyearsfollowingtheopeningupofAsiaandthediscoveryoftheNewWorld,goodswereimportedfromverylongdistances:calicoclothfromIndia,porcelain,silkandteafromChina,spicesfromIndiaandSouth-EastAsiaandtobacco,sugar,rumandcoffeefromtheNewWorld.[37] InMesoamerica,atieredsystemoftradersdevelopedindependently.Thelocalmarkets,wherepeoplepurchasedtheirdailyneedswereknownastianguiswhilepochtecareferredtolong-distance,professionalmerchantstraderswhoobtainedraregoodsandluxuryitemsdesiredbythenobility.Thistradingsystemsupportedvariouslevelsofpochteca–fromveryhighstatusmerchantsthroughtominortraderswhoactedasatypeofpeddlertofillingapsinthedistributionsystem.[38]TheSpanishconquerorscommentedontheimpressivenatureofthelocalandregionalmarketsinthe15thcentury.TheMexica(Aztec)marketofTlatelolcowasthelargestinalltheAmericasandsaidtobesuperiortothoseinEurope.[39] InmuchofRenaissanceEuropeandevenafter,merchanttraderemainedseenasalowlyprofessionanditwasoftensubjecttolegaldiscriminationorrestrictions,althoughinafewareasitsstatusbegantoimprove.[40][41][42][43][44][45] Merchantsinthemodernera[edit] Themoderneraisgenerallyunderstoodtorefertoperiodthatstartedwiththeriseofconsumercultureinseventeenth-andeighteenth-centuryEurope.[46][needquotationtoverify] Asstandardsoflivingimprovedinthe17thcentury,consumersfromabroadrangeofsocialbackgroundsbegantopurchasegoodsthatwereinexcessofbasicnecessities.Anemergentmiddleclassorbourgeoisiestimulateddemandforluxurygoods,andtheactofshoppingcametobeseenasapleasurablepastimeorformofentertainment.[47] Merchantsengagedininternationaltradebegantodevelopamoreoutward-lookingmindset AsBritaincontinuedcolonialexpansion,largecommercialorganisationscametoprovideamarketformoresophisticatedinformationabouttradingconditionsinforeignlands.DanielDefoe(c.1660–1731),aLondonmerchant,publishedinformationontradeandeconomicresourcesofEngland,ScotlandandIndia.[48][49]Defoewasaprolificpamphleteer.Hismanypublicationsincludetitlesdevotedtotrade,including:TradeofBritainStated(1707);TradeofScotlandwithFrance(1713);TheTradetoIndiaCriticallyandCalmlyConsidered(1720)andAPlanoftheEnglishCommerce(1731);allpamphletsthatbecamehighlypopularwithcontemporarymerchantsandbusinesshouses.[50] Armeniansoperatedasaprominenttradenationduringthe17thcentury.Theystoodoutininternationaltradeduetotheirvastnetwork–mostlybuiltbyArmenianmigrantsspreadacrossEurasia.Armenianshadestablishedprominenttrade-relationswithallbigexportplayerssuchasIndia,China,Persia,theOttomanEmpire,England,Venice,theLevant,etc.SoontheycapturedEasternandWesternEurope,Russia,theLevant,theMiddleEast,CentralAsia,India,andtheFarEasttraderoutes,carryingoutmostlycaravan-tradeactivities.AsignificantreasonforArmenians'massiveinvolvementininternationaltradewastheirgeographiclocation–theArmenianlandsstandatthecrossroadsbetweenAsiaandEurope.Anotherreasonwastheirreligion,astheywereaChristiannationisolatedbetweenMuslimIranandMuslimTurkey.EuropeanChristianspreferredtocarryouttradewithChristiansintheregion.[51] Eighteenth-centurymerchantswhotradedinforeignmarketsdevelopedanetworkofrelationshipswhichcrossednationalboundaries,religiousaffiliations,familyties,andgender.Thehistorian,Vannneste,hasarguedthatanew"cosmopolitanmerchantmentality"basedontrust,reciprocityandacultureofcommunalsupportdevelopedandhelpedtounifytheearlymodernworld.Giventhatthesecosmopolitanmerchantswereembeddedwithintheirsocietiesandparticipatedinthehighestlevelofexchange,theytransferredamoreoutward-lookingmindsetandsystemofvaluestotheircommercial-exchangetransactions,andalsohelpedtodisseminateamoreglobalawarenesstobroadersocietyandthereforeactedasagentsofchangeforlocalsociety.Successful,open-mindedcosmopolitanmerchantsbegantoacquireamoreesteemedsocialpositionwithinthepoliticalelites.Theywereoftensoughtasadvisorsforhigh-levelpoliticalagents.[52]TheEnglishnabobsbelongtothisera. Bytheeighteenthcentury,anewtypeofmanufacturer-merchantwasemergingandmodernbusinesspracticeswerebecomingevident.Manymerchantsheldshowcasesofgoodsintheirprivatehomesforthebenefitofwealthierclients.[53]SamuelPepys,forexample,writingin1660,describesbeinginvitedtothehomeofaretailertoviewawoodenjack.[54]McKendrick,BrewerandPlumbfoundextensiveevidenceofeighteenth-centuryEnglishentrepreneursandmerchantsusing"modern"marketingtechniques,includingproductdifferentiation,salespromotionandloss-leaderpricing.[55]Englishindustrialists,JosiahWedgewood(1730–1795)andMatthewBoulton(1728–1809),areoftenportrayedaspioneersofmodernmass-marketingmethods.[56]Wedgewoodwasknowntohaveusedmarketingtechniquessuchasdirectmail,travellingsalesmenandcataloguesintheeighteenthcentury.[57]Wedgewoodalsocarriedoutseriousinvestigationsintothefixedandvariablecostsofproductionandrecognisedthatincreasedproductionwouldleadtolowerunit-costs.Healsoinferredthatsellingatlowerpriceswouldleadtohigherdemandandrecognisedthevalueofachievingscaleeconomiesinproduction.Bycuttingcostsandloweringprices,Wedgewoodwasabletogeneratehigheroverallprofits.[58]Similarly,oneofWedgewood'scontemporaries,MatthewBoulton,pioneeredearlymass-productiontechniquesandproductdifferentiationathisSohoManufactoryinthe1760s.Healsopracticedplannedobsolescenceandunderstoodtheimportanceof"celebritymarketing"–thatissupplyingthenobility,oftenatpricesbelowcost–andofobtainingroyalpatronage,forthesakeofthepublicityandkudosgenerated.[59]BothWedgewoodandBoultonstagedexpansiveshowcasesoftheirwaresintheirprivateresidencesorinrentedhalls.[60] Eighteenth-centuryAmericanmerchants,whohadbeenoperatingasimportersandexporters,begantospecialiseineitherwholesaleorretailroles.Theytendednottospecialiseinparticulartypesofmerchandise,oftentradingasgeneralmerchants,sellingadiverserangeofproducttypes.Thesemerchantswereconcentratedinthelargercities.Theyoftenprovidedhighlevelsofcreditfinancingforretailtransactions.[61] Inthenineteenthcentury,merchantsandmerchanthousesplayedaroleinopeningupChinaandthePacifictoAnglo-Americantradeinterests.NoteforexampleJardineMatheson&Co.andthemerchantsofNewSouthWales.Othermerchantsprofitedfromnaturalresources(theHudson'sBayCompanytheoreticallycontrolledmuchofNorthAmerica,nameslikeRockefellerandNobeldominatedtradeinoilintheUSandintheRussianEmpire),whilestillothersmadefortunesfromexploitingnewinventions–sellingspaceonandcommoditiescarriedbyrailwaysandsteamships. Infullyplannedeconomiesofthe20thcentury,plannersreplacedmerchantsinorganisingthedistributionofgoodsandservices.[62] However,merchants,increasinglylabelledwitheuphemismssuchas"industrialists","businessmen","entrepreneurs"or"oligarchs",[63] continuetheiractivitiesinthe21stcentury.ThewealthandinfluenceoffiguressuchasJeffBezos,BillGatesandJackMatestifytotheongoingimportanceofmerchandising. Inart[edit] ElizabethHonighasarguedthatartists,especiallytheDutchpaintersofAntwerp,developedafascinationwithmerchantsfromthemid-16thcentury.Atthistime,theeconomywasundergoingprofoundchanges–capitalismemergedasthedominantsocialorganisationreplacingearliermodesofproduction.Merchantswereimportingproducefromafar–grainfromtheBaltic,textilesfromEngland,winefromGermanyandmetalsfromvariouscountries.Antwerpwasthecentreofthisnewcommercialworld.Thepublicbegantodistinguishbetweentwotypesofmerchant,theeersenierswhowerelocalmerchantsincludingbakers,grocers,sellersofdairyproductsandstall-holders,andthekoopman,whichwereanew,emergentclassoftraderwhodealtingoodsorcreditonalargescale.WiththeriseofaEuropeanmerchantclass,thisdistinctionwasnecessarytoseparatethedailytradethatthegeneralpopulationunderstoodfromtherisingranksoftraderswhooperatedonaworldstageandwereseenasquitedistantfromeverydayexperience.[64]Thewealthiermerchantsalsohadthemeanstocommissionartworkswiththeresultthatindividualmerchantsandtheirfamiliesbecameimportantsubjectmatterforartists.Forinstance,HansHolbeintheyoungerpaintedaseriesofportraitsofHanseaticmerchantsworkingoutofLondon'sSteelyardinthe1530s.[65]TheseincludedincludingGeorgGieseofDanzig;HillebrantWedighofCologne;DirkTybisofDuisburg;HansofAntwerp,HermannWedigh,JohannSchwarzwald,CyriacusKale,DerichBornandDerickBerck.[66]Paintingsofgroupsofmerchants,notablyofficersofthemerchantguilds,alsobecamesubjectmatterforartistsanddocumentedtheriseofimportantmercantileorganisations.[citationneeded] Inrecentart:DutchphotographerLoesHeerinkspendhoursonbridgesinHanoitotakepicturesofVietnamesestreetMerchants.ShepublishedabookcalledMerchantsinMotion:theartofVietnameseStreetVendors.[67] AJewishmerchantandhisfamilybyPaoloUccello1465-1469 TheArnolfiniPortrait,believedtobeofItalianmerchant,GiovannideNicolaoArnolfiniwithhiswife,byJanvanEyck,c.1434 Lorenzode'Medici,merchant,Florentinebust,14thor15thcentury MathiasMulich(1470-1528),MerchantinLübeck,byJacobClaeszvanUtrecht,c.1522 PortraitofAntonFuggerbyHansMalerzuSchwaz,c.1525 PortraitofGeorgeGisze,themerchant,byHansHolbeintheYounger,c1532 PortraitofamemberoftheWedighmerchantfamilybyHansHolbeintheYounger,c.1532 TheHanseaticmerchant,CyriacusKale,byHansHolbeintheYounger,c.1533 AHanseaticmerchant,byHansHolbeintheYounger,c1538 PortraitofaMerchantbyCorneilledeLyon,c.1541 SirThomasGreshambyAnthonisMor,c.1560. CornelisvanderGeest,merchantofAntwerp,byAnthonyvanDyck,c.1620 PortraitofNicolaesvanderBorght,merchantofAntwerpbyVanDyk,1625–35 Portraitoftheclothmerchant,AbrahamdelCourtandhiswifeMariadeKeerssegieterbyBartelmeusvanderHelst,c.1654 FrederickRihel,amerchantonhorsebackbyRembrandt,c.1663 PortraitofAmsterdammerchant,CornelisNuyts(1574-1661)byJürgenOvens PortraitofJoshuavanBelle,merchantinSpainbyBartoloméEstebanMurillo,c.1670 PortraitofPieterCnoll,seniormerchantofBatavia,withfamily,byJacobJanzCoeman,c.1655 TheMerchantbyAbrahamvanStrijc.1800 CasparVoght,Germanmerchant,1801byJean-LaurentMosnier JoshuaWatson,Englishwinemerchant,1863 TheCarpetMerchantbyJean-LéonGérôme,c1887 MerchantSytovbyanonymous(Rybinskmuseum),mid-19thcentury GovernorsoftheWineMerchant'sGuildbyFerdinandBol,c.1680 TheSyndicsoftheDrapers'GuildbyRembrandt,c.1662 FourofficersoftheAmsterdamCoopersandwine-rackersGuildbyGerbrandJanszvandenEeckhout,c.1660 ReceptionofJanKareldeCordesattheguildhallbyBalthasarvandenBossche,c.1711 Inarchitecture[edit] Althoughmerchanthallswereknowninantiquity,theyfellintodisuseandwerenotreinventeduntilEurope'sMedievalperiod.[68]Duringthe12thcentury,powerfulguildswhichcontrolledthewaythattradewasconductedwereestablishedandwereoftenincorporatedintothechartersgrantedtomarkettowns.Bythe13thand14thcenturies,merchantguildshadacquiredsufficientresourcestoerectguildhallsinmanymajormarkettowns.[69]Manybuildingshaveretainedthenamesderivedfromtheirformeruseasthehomeorplaceofbusinessofmerchants:[citationneeded] TheMerchant'sHouse,Kirkcaldy,Scotland MerchantTower,Kentucky,USA Medievalmerchant'shouse,Southampton,England TudorMerchant'sHall,Southampton,England Drapers'Hall,Coventry,England TheBlacksmiths'GuildHall,Venice,Italy Shoemakers'GuildHall,Venice,Italy Brodhaus,Bakers'Guild,Einbeck,Germany Knochenhaueramtshaus,Butcher'sguildhall,Hildesheim,Germany TheButcher'sHall,Antwerp,Belgium TheHanseaticLeagueBuilding,Antwerp,16thcentury Seealso[edit] Businessperson Capitalism Chapmen Commerce Costermonger Distribution Entrepreneur Freemarket Freetrade Guild Guildhall Hawker Historyofmarketing Judaism Licensedvictualler Market(place) Mercantilism Merchantaccount Merchantmarine Peddler Phoeniciansandwine Pochteca Retail Romancommerce Barker(occupation) References[edit] References ^Merriam-WebsterDictionary,https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/merchant ^OnlineDictionaryofEtymology,http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=merchant ^Honig,E.A.,Painting&theMarketinEarlyModernAntwerp,YaleUniversityPress,1998,pp4–10 ^LongmanDictionaryofContemporaryEnglish,2013.mer‧chant ^Demirdjian,Z.S.,"RiseandFallofMarketinginMesopotamia:AConundrumintheCradleofCivilization,"InTheFutureofMarketing'sPast:Proceedingsofthe12thAnnualConferenceonHistoricalAnalysisandResearchinMarketing,LeightonNeilson(ed.),CA,Longman,AssociationforAnalysisandResearchinMarketing,2005 ^RahulOka&ChapurukhaM.Kusimba,"TheArchaeologyofTradingSystems,Part1:TowardsaNewTradeSynthesis,"TheArchaeologyofTradingSystems,Part1:TowardsaNewTradeSynthesis,"JournalofArchaeologicalResearch,Vol.16,pp339–395 ^Bar-Yosef,O.,"TheUpperPaleolithicRevolution,"AnnualReviewofAnthropology,Vol.31,pp363–393 ^Alberti,M.E.,"TradeandWeighingSystemsintheSouthernAegeanfromtheEarlyBronzeAgetotheIronAge:HowChangingCircuitsInfluencedGlobalMeasures,"inMolloy,B.(ed.),OfOdysseysandOddities:ScalesandModesofInteractionBetweenPrehistoricAegeanSocietiesandtheirNeighbours,[SheffieldStudiesinAegeanArchaeology],Oxford,Oxbow,(E-Book),2016 ^Bintliff,J.,"GoingtoMarketinAntiquity,"InStuttgarterKolloquiumzurHistorischenGeographiedesAltertums,EckartOlshausenandHolgerSonnabend(eds),Stuttgart,FranzSteiner,2002,pp209–250 ^Shaw,E.H.,“AncientandMedievalMarketing,"Chapter2in:Jones,D.G.B.andTadajewski,M.,TheRoutledgeCompaniontoMarketingHistory,Routledge,2016,pp23–24 ^Bintliff,J.,"GoingtoMarketinAntiquity,"InStuttgarterKolloquiumzurHistorischenGeographiedesAltertums,EckartOlshausenandHolgerSonnabend(eds),Stuttgart,FranzSteiner,2002,pp209–250:https://books.google.com/books?id=IAMK1952av4C ^ Parker,JohnHenry(1876)."TheOtherForums".TheForumRomanum.Oxford:JamesParker&Company.p. 42.Retrieved29June2019.TheForumBoariumwasthecattle-marketorSmithfieldofancientRome[...]. ^Coleman,P.,ShoppingEnvironments,Elsevier,Oxford,2006,p.28 ^ Shaw,EricH.(2016)."2:Ancientandmedievalmarketing".InJones,D.G.Brian;Tadajewski,Mark(eds.).TheRoutledgeCompaniontoMarketingHistory.RoutledgeCompanions.London:Routledge.p. 24.ISBN 9781134688685.Retrieved3January2017.PerhapstheonlysubstantiatedtypeofretailmarketingpracticethatevolvedfromNeolithictimestothepresentwastheitineranttradesman(alsoknownaspeddler,packmanorchapman).Theseforerunnersoftravellingsalesmenroamedfromvillagetovillagebarteringstoneaxesinexchangeforsaltorothergoods(Dixon,1975). ^Stabel,P.,"GuildsinLateMedievalFlanders:mythsandrealitiesofguildlifeinanexport-orientedenvironment,"JournalofMedievalHistory,vol.30,2004,pp187–212 ^Rawlinson,G.,HistoryofPhoenicia,LibraryofAlexandria,1889 ^Cartwright,M.,"TradeinthePhoenicianWorld",WorldHistoryEncyclopedia,1April2016 ^Daniels(1996)p.94–95. ^JohnNobleWilford(13November1999)"DiscoveryofEgyptianInscriptionsIndicatesanEarlierDateforOriginoftheAlphabet",NewYorkTimes, ^Oka,R.andKusimba,C.M.,"TheArchaeologyofTradingSystems,Part1:TowardsaNewTradeSynthesis,"TheArchaeologyofTradingSystems,Part1:TowardsaNewTradeSynthesis,"JournalofArchaeologicalResearch,Vol.16,p.359 ^Tchernia,A.,TheRomansandTrade,Oxford,OxfordUniversityPress,2016,Ch1 ^Ashraf,A.,"Bazaar-MosqueAlliance:TheSocialBasisofRevoltsandRevolutions,"InternationalJournalofPolitics,Culture,andSociety,Vol.1,No.4,1988,pp.538–567,StableURL:JSTOR 20006873,p.539 ^"DecameronWeb–Society".Brown.edu.Archivedfromtheoriginalon1March2013.Retrieved8February2017. ^Barnish,S.J.B.(1989)"TheTransformationofClassicalCitiesandthePirenneDebate",JournalofRomanArchaeology,Vol.2,p.390. ^Curtis,R.I.,"APersonalizedFloorMosaicfromPompeii",AmericanJournalofArchaeology,Vol.88,No.4(October1984),DOI:10.2307/504744,pp.557–566,StableURL:JSTOR 504744 ^Bintliff,J.,"GoingtoMarketinAntiquity,"InStuttgarterKolloquiumzurHistorischenGeographiedesAltertums,EckartOlshausenandHolgerSonnabend(eds),Stuttgart,FranzSteiner,2002,p.229,https://books.google.com/books?id=IAMK1952av4C :"ThekindofmodelthatMorleyandotherspecialistsinGreco-Romanmarketinghavebeendeveloping[...]seesthelocalmarket-townasprimarilyservinglocalpeasantry.Heretheyunloadtheirsmallsurplusandpurchaseminoramountsoffarmequipmentandluxuriesfortheirbarnsandhomes;someoftheirneedsarealreadymetthroughtravellingpedlarsandnon-urbanperiodicfairsheldatlongintervals.Majorproducers–thegreatestates–wouldbeattractiveenoughfociformerchantstoconsidertravellingdirectlytopurchasecommercially-focussedharvests'atthefarmgate',andsomelandownerswerewealthyenoughtohandletheirowndistributiontourbanmarketsinthecountryofproductionandeventoothercountries.Theselatterprocessesaredocumentedbothintheancientsourcesandarchaeologicalcase-studies." ^Millar,F.,"TheWorldoftheGoldenAss",JournalofRomanStudies,Vol.71,1981,pp.63–67 ^McLaughlin,R.,TheRomanEmpireandtheSilkRoutes:TheAncientWorldEconomyandtheEmpiresofParthia,CentralAsiaandHanChina,SouthYorkshire,PenandSwordBooks,2016 ^ McLaughlin,R.,TheRomanEmpireandtheIndianOcean:TheAncientWorldEconomyandtheKingdomsofAfrica,ArabiaandIndia,SouthYorkshire,PenandSwordBooks,2014,p.135:"Thepure-whitemarblethatwasquarriedinsouthernArabiahadafinecrystallinetextureandRomanmerchntstookaboardthisheavymaterialasballasttostabilisetheirships.Ontheirreturntotheempire,thisvaluablemarblewassoldtostoneworkersandcarvedintoelegantunguentjarsthatresembledradiantalabaster." ^ McLaughlin,R.,TheRomanEmpireandtheIndianOcean:TheAncientWorldEconomyandtheKingdomsofAfrica,ArabiaandIndia,SouthYorkshire,PenandSwordBooks,2014,p.222:"AfurtherRomancriticismofeasterntradewasthatitcreatedaconsumermarketforexpensiveforeigngoodsthatwerewastefullyextravagantandultimatelyunnecessary.[...]DuringtheJulio-Claudianeraaristocraticfamiliescompetedforpoliticalstatusandprestigethroughtheostentatiousdisplayofwealth." ^Bintliff,J.,"GoingtoMarketinAntiquity",InStuttgarterKolloquiumzurHistorischenGeographiedesAltertums,EckartOlshausenandHolgerSonnabend(eds),Stuttgart,FranzSteiner,2002,p.224 ^EncyclopædiaBritannicaOnline:https://www.britannica.com/topic/merchant-guild ^Epstein,S.A,WageLaborandGuildsinMedievalEurope,UniversityofNorthCarolinaPress,1991,pp50–100 ^Casson,M.andLee,J.,"TheOriginandDevelopmentofMarkets:ABusinessHistoryPerspective,"BusinessHistoryReview,Vol85,Spring,2011,doi:10.1017/S0007680511000018,pp22–26 ^Clerici,L.,"Leprixdubiencommun.Taxationdesprixetapprovisionnementurbain(Vicence,XVIe-XVIIesiècle)"[Thepriceofthecommongood.OfficialpricesandurbanprovisioninginsixteenthandseventeenthcenturyVicenza]inIprezzidellecosenell’etàpreindustriale/ThePricesofThingsinPre-IndustrialTimes,[forthcoming],FirenzeUniversityPress,2017. ^"MerchantAdventurers"inEncyclopædiaBritannica,OnlineLibraryEdition,2013.Retrieved22July2013. ^Braudel,F.andReynold,S.,TheWheelsofCommerce:CivilizationandCapitalism,15thto18thCentury,BerkeleyCA,UniversityofCaliforniaPress,1992 ^Salomón,F.,"Pochtecaandmindalá:acomparisonoflong-distancetradersinEcuadorandMesoamerica,"JournaloftheStewardAnthropologicalSociety,Vol.1–2,1978,pp231–246 ^RebeccaM.Seaman,ed.(27August2013).ConflictintheEarlyAmericas:AnEncyclopediaoftheSpanishEmpire'sAztec,IncanandMayanConquests.p. 375.ISBN 9781598847772. ^QuercioloMazzonis(2007).Spirituality,Gender,andtheSelfinRenaissanceItaly:AngelaMericiandtheCompanyofSt.Ursula(1474–1540).CUAPress.p. 79.ISBN 978-0813214900. ^MargaretL.King(2016).AShortHistoryoftheRenaissanceinEurope.UniversityofTorontoPress.p. 332.ISBN 978-1487593087. ^DionC.Smythe(2016).StrangerstoThemselves:TheByzantineOutsider:PapersfromtheThirty-SecondSpringSymposiumofByzantineStudies,UniversityofSussex,Brighton,March1998.Routledge.pp. 129–130.ISBN 978-1351897808. ^JeannieLabno(2016)."3".CommemoratingthePolishRenaissanceChild:FuneralMonumentsandtheirEuropeanContext.Routledge.ISBN 978-1317163954. ^R.S.Alexander(2012).Europe'sUncertainPath1814-1914:StateFormationandCivilSociety.JohnWiley&Sons.p. 82.ISBN 978-1405100526. ^JonathanDewald(1996).TheEuropeanNobility,1400-1800.CambridgeUniversityPress.pp. 95–96.ISBN 052142528X. ^ Southerton,Dale,ed.(15September2011).EncyclopediaofConsumerCulture.SAGEPublications(published2011).p. xxx.ISBN 9781452266534.Retrieved16August2021. ^Jones,C.andSpang,R.,"SansCulottes,SansCafé,SansTabac:ShiftingRealmsofLuxuryandNecessityinEighteenth-CenturyFrance,"Chapter2inConsumersandLuxury:ConsumerCultureinEurope,1650–1850Berg,M.andClifford,H.,ManchesterUniversityPress,1999;Berg,M.,"NewCommodities,LuxuriesandTheirConsumersinNineteenth-CenturyEngland,"Chapter3inConsumersandLuxury:ConsumerCultureinEurope,1650–1850Berg,M.andClifford,H.,ManchesterUniversityPress,1999 ^Minto,W.,DanielDefoe,TreditionClassics,[ProjectGutenberged.],Chapter10 ^Richetti,J.,TheLifeofDanielDefoe:ACriticalBiography,Malden,MA.,Blackwell,2005,2015,pp147–49and158-59 ^Backscheider,P.R.,DanielDefoe:HisLife,Baltimore,Maryland,JohnsHopkinsUniversityPress,1989. ^Bakhchinyan,Artsvi(2017)."TheActivityofArmenianMerchantsinInternationalTrade"(PDF):23–29.{{citejournal}}:Citejournalrequires|journal=(help) ^Vanneste,R.,GlobalTradeandCommercialNetworks:Eighteenth-CenturyDiamondMerchants,London,PickeringandChatto,2011,ISBN 9781848930872 ^McKendrick,N.,Brewer,J.andPlumb.J.H.,TheBirthofaConsumerSociety:TheCommercializationofEighteenthCenturyEngland,London,1982. ^Cox,N.C.andDannehl,K.,PerceptionsofRetailinginEarlyModernEngland,Aldershot,Hampshire,Ashgate,2007,pp155–59 ^McKendrick,N.,Brewer,J.andPlumb.J.H.,TheBirthofaConsumerSociety:TheCommercializationofEighteenthCenturyEngland,London,1982. ^Tadajewski,M.andJones,D.G.B.,"Historicalresearchinmarketingtheoryandpractice:areviewessay",JournalofMarketingManagement,Vol.30,No.11-12,2014[SpecialIssue:PushingtheBoundaries,SketchingtheFuture],pp1239–1291. ^Flanders,J.,"TheyBrokeIt",NewYorkTimes,9January2009, ^Drake,D.,"Dinnerware&CostAccounting?TheStoryofJosiahWedgwood:PotterandCostAccountant,"HQFinancialViews,VolumeI,1May–July2005,pp1–3 ^Applbaum,K.,TheMarketingEra:FromProfessionalPracticetoGlobalProvisioning,Routledge,2004,p.126-127 ^McKendrick,N.,Brewer,J.andPlumb.J.H.,TheBirthofaConsumerSociety:TheCommercializationofEighteenthCenturyEngland,London,1982. ^Savitt,R.,"LookingBacktoSeeAhead:WritingtheHistoryofAmericanRetailing",inRetailing:TheEvolutionandDevelopmentofRetailing,A.M.Findlay,LeighSparks(eds),pp138–39. ^ TangLixing(14December2017).MerchantsandSocietyinModernChina:FromGuildtoChamberofCommerce.ChinaPerspectives.Routledge(published2017).ISBN 9781351612968.Retrieved16August2021.Weseethepermutationandextensionofthetraditionaleconomicelementsinhighlyplannedeconomy.Theanti-commercepolicyreachedtosuchanextremethatmerchantsweredismissedasthecapitalistheresy. ^ Graphofproportionateterminologyusage ^Honig,E.A.,Painting&theMarketinEarlyModernAntwerp,YaleUniversityPress,1998,pp6–10 ^Fudge,J.F.,CommerceandPrintintheEarlyReformation,Brill,2007,p.110 ^Holman,T.S.,"Holbein'sPortraitsoftheSteelyardMerchants:AnInvestigation,"MetropolitanMuseumJournal,vol.14,1980,pp139–158 ^"MerchantsinMotion".LoesHeerink.Retrieved18February2022. ^Gelderblom,O.andGrafe,E.,"ThePersistenceandDeclineofMerchantGuilds:Re-thinkingtheComparativeStudyofCommercialInstitutionsinPre-modernEurope,"[WorkingPaper],YaleUniversity,2008 ^EpsteinS.A,WageLaborandGuildsinMedievalEurope,UniversityofNorthCarolinaPress,1991,pp50–100 Sourcesandfurtherreading[edit] AdamsJulia.TheFamilialState.RulingFamiliesandMerchantCapitalisminEarlyModernEurope(CornellUniversityPress,2005) Braudel,F.TheWheelsofCommerce:CivilizationandCapitalism,15thto18thCentury(UofCaliforniaPress,1992) Burset,ChristianR."Merchantcourts,arbitration,andthepoliticsofcommerciallitigationintheeighteenth-centuryBritishEmpire."LawandHistoryReview34.3(2016):615–647.online Casson,Mark.Theentrepreneur:Aneconomictheory(Rowman&Littlefield,1982).Influentialscholarlysurvey Enciso,AgustínGonzález."Themerchantandthecommongood:socialparadigmsandthestate’sinfluenceinWesternhistory."inTheChallengesofCapitalismforVirtueEthicsandtheCommonGood(EdwardElgarPublishing,2016). Julien,Pierre-André,ed.Thestateoftheartinsmallbusinessandentrepreneurship(Routledge,2018). Lindemann,Mary.TheMerchantRepublics—Amsterdam,Antwerp,andHamburg,1648–1790(CambridgeUP,2015) Marsden,Magnus,andVeraSkvirskaja."Merchantidentities,tradingnodes,andglobalization:IntroductiontotheSpecialIssue."HistoryandAnthropology29.sup1(2018):S1-S13.online Smith,Adam,"AnInquiryintotheNatureandCausesoftheWealthofNations"(BantamClassics,AnnotatedEdition,4March2003)ISBN 978-0553585971 Origo,Iris.TheMerchantofPrato:DailyLifeinaMedievalItalianCity(PenguinUK,2017). Outhwaite,R.B."MerchantsandGentryinNorth-EastEngland,1650–1830:TheCarrsandtheEllisons."EnglishHistoricalReview115.462(2000):729–729. Persaud,Alexander."IndianMerchantMigrationwithintheBritishEmpire."OxfordResearchEncyclopediaofAsianHistory.(2020) Thrupp,SylviaL.(1989).TheMerchantClassofMedievalLondon,1300–1500.UniversityofMichiganPress.ISBN 978-0-472-06072-6. Williams,E.N."OurMerchantsArePrinces":TheEnglishMiddleClassesInTheEighteenthCentury"HistoryToday(Aug196)2,Vol.12Issue8,pp548–557. Externallinks[edit] ThedictionarydefinitionofmerchantatWiktionary MediarelatedtoMerchantsatWikimediaCommons QuotationsrelatedtoMerchantatWikiquote AuthoritycontrolNationallibraries Germany Israel UnitedStates Japan CzechRepublic 2 Other HistoricalDictionaryofSwitzerland Retrievedfrom"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Merchant&oldid=1072570515" Categories:BusinessoccupationsDistribution(marketing)MerchantsHiddencategories:CS1errors:missingperiodicalUsedmydatesfromOctober2021ArticleswithshortdescriptionShortdescriptionmatchesWikidataArticlescontainingMiddleEnglish(1100-1500)-languagetextArticlescontainingDutch-languagetextArticlescontainingLatin-languagetextAllarticleswithunsourcedstatementsArticleswithunsourcedstatementsfromAugust2021ArticlesneedingadditionalreferencesfromAugust2021AllarticlesneedingadditionalreferencesWikipediaarticlesneedingfactualverificationfromJune2019ArticleswithunsourcedstatementsfromJune2019WikipediaarticlesneedingfactualverificationfromAugust2021CommonscategorylinkisonWikidataArticleswithGNDidentifiersArticleswithJ9UidentifiersArticleswithLCCNidentifiersArticleswithNDLidentifiersArticleswithNKCidentifiersArticleswithHDSidentifiersArticleswithmultipleidentifiers Navigationmenu Personaltools NotloggedinTalkContributionsCreateaccountLogin Namespaces ArticleTalk English Views ReadEditViewhistory More Search Navigation MainpageContentsCurrenteventsRandomarticleAboutWikipediaContactusDonate Contribute HelpLearntoeditCommunityportalRecentchangesUploadfile Tools WhatlinkshereRelatedchangesUploadfileSpecialpagesPermanentlinkPageinformationCitethispageWikidataitem Print/export DownloadasPDFPrintableversion Inotherprojects WikimediaCommonsWikiquote Languages AkanالعربيةAzərbaycancaBân-lâm-gúБългарскиЧӑвашлаDanskDeutschEestiΕλληνικάEspañolEsperantoفارسیFrançaisFryskGaelgGàidhlig客家語/Hak-kâ-ngî한국어HrvatskiBahasaIndonesiaItalianoעבריתJawaქართულიҚазақшаLatviešuLietuviųMagyarमराठीNederlands日本語NorskbokmålPolskiPortuguêsRomânăRunaSimiРусскийSimpleEnglishSlovenščinaСрпски/srpskiSrpskohrvatski/српскохрватскиSvenskaไทยTürkçeTwiУкраїнськаVahcuenghTiếngViệtWinaray粵語 Editlinks