Domestication - Wikipedia

Domestication is a sustained multi-generational relationship in which one group of organisms assumes a significant degree of influence over the reproduction ... Domestication FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia Jumptonavigation Jumptosearch Selectivebreedingofplantsandanimalstoservehumans Dogsandsheepwereamongthefirstanimalstobedomesticated. Domesticationisasustainedmulti-generationalrelationshipinwhichonegroupoforganismsassumesasignificantdegreeofinfluenceoverthereproductionandcareofanothergrouptosecureamorepredictablesupplyofresourcesfromthatsecondgroup.[1] Thedomesticationofplantsandanimalswasamajorculturalinnovationrankedinimportancewiththeconquestoffire,themanufacturingoftools,andthedevelopmentofverballanguage.[2] CharlesDarwinrecognizedthesmallnumberoftraitsthatmadedomesticspeciesdifferentfromtheirwildancestors.Hewasalsothefirsttorecognizethedifferencebetweenconsciousselectivebreedinginwhichhumansdirectlyselectfordesirabletraits,andunconsciousselectionwheretraitsevolveasaby-productofnaturalselectionorfromselectiononothertraits.[3][4][5]Thereisageneticdifferencebetweendomesticandwildpopulations.Thereisalsosuchadifferencebetweenthedomesticationtraitsthatresearchersbelievetohavebeenessentialattheearlystagesofdomestication,andtheimprovementtraitsthathaveappearedsincethesplitbetweenwildanddomesticpopulations.[6][7][8]Domesticationtraitsaregenerallyfixedwithinalldomesticates,andwereselectedduringtheinitialepisodeofdomesticationofthatanimalorplant,whereasimprovementtraitsarepresentonlyinaproportionofdomesticates,thoughtheymaybefixedinindividualbreedsorregionalpopulations.[7][8][9] Thedogwasthefirstdomesticatedspecies,[10][11][12]andwasestablishedacrossEurasiabeforetheendoftheLatePleistoceneera,wellbeforecultivationandbeforethedomesticationofotheranimals.[11]Thearchaeologicalandgeneticdatasuggestthatlong-termbidirectionalgeneflowbetweenwildanddomesticstocks–includingdonkeys,horses,NewandOldWorldcamelids,goats,sheep,andpigs–wascommon.[8][13]Givenitsimportancetohumansanditsvalueasamodelofevolutionaryanddemographicchange,domesticationhasattractedscientistsfromarchaeology,paleontology,anthropology,botany,zoology,genetics,andtheenvironmentalsciences.[14] Amongbirds,themajordomesticspeciestodayisthechicken,importantformeatandeggs,thougheconomicallyvaluablepoultryincludetheturkey,guineafowlandnumerousotherspecies.Birdsarealsowidelykeptascagebirds,fromsongbirdstoparrots.Thelongestestablishedinvertebratedomesticatesarethehoneybeeandthesilkworm.Landsnailsareraisedforfood,whilespeciesfromseveralphylaarekeptforresearch,andothersarebredforbiologicalcontrol. Thedomesticationofplantsbeganatleast12,000yearsagowithcerealsintheMiddleEast,andthebottlegourdinAsia.Agriculturedevelopedinatleast11differentcentresaroundtheworld,domesticatingdifferentcropsandanimals. Contents 1Overview 2Causeandtiming 3Animals 3.1Theory 3.2Mammals 3.3Birds 3.4Invertebrates 4Plants 4.1History 4.2Differencesfromwildplants 4.3Theimpactofdomesticationontheplantmicrobiome 4.4Traitsthatarebeinggeneticallyimproved 4.5Cropplantsthatarebeinggeneticallyimproved 4.6Challengesfacinggeneticimprovement 4.7Workingwithwildplantstoimprovedomestics 4.8Fungiandmicro-organisms 5Effects 5.1Ondomesticanimals 5.2Onsociety 5.3Ondiversity 6Seealso 7Notes 8References 9Furtherreading 10Externallinks Overview[edit] Succulentslikethisjellybeanplant(Sedumrubrotinctum)needinfrequentwatering,makingthemconvenientashouseplants. Domestication,fromtheLatindomesticus,'belongingtothehouse',[15]is"asustainedmulti-generational,mutualisticrelationshipinwhichoneorganismassumesasignificantdegreeofinfluenceoverthereproductionandcareofanotherorganisminordertosecureamorepredictablesupplyofaresourceofinterest,andthroughwhichthepartnerorganismgainsadvantageoverindividualsthatremainoutsidethisrelationship,therebybenefittingandoftenincreasingthefitnessofboththedomesticatorandthetargetdomesticate."[1][16][17][18][19]Thisdefinitionrecognizesboththebiologicalandtheculturalcomponentsofthedomesticationprocessandtheimpactsonbothhumansandthedomesticatedanimalsandplants.Allpastdefinitionsofdomesticationhaveincludedarelationshipbetweenhumanswithplantsandanimals,buttheirdifferenceslayinwhowasconsideredastheleadpartnerintherelationship.Thisnewdefinitionrecognizesamutualisticrelationshipinwhichbothpartnersgainbenefits.Domesticationhasvastlyenhancedthereproductiveoutputofcropplants,livestock,andpetsfarbeyondthatoftheirwildprogenitors.Domesticateshaveprovidedhumanswithresourcesthattheycouldmorepredictablyandsecurelycontrol,move,andredistribute,whichhasbeentheadvantagethathadfueledapopulationexplosionoftheagro-pastoralistsandtheirspreadtoallcornersoftheplanet.[19] Houseplantsandornamentalsareplantsdomesticatedprimarilyforaestheticenjoymentinandaroundthehome,whilethosedomesticatedforlarge-scalefoodproductionarecalledcrops.Domesticatedplantsdeliberatelyalteredorselectedforspecialdesirablecharacteristicsarecultigens.Animalsdomesticatedforhomecompanionshiparecalledpets,whilethosedomesticatedforfoodorworkareknownaslivestock.[citationneeded] Thisbiologicalmutualismisnotrestrictedtohumanswithdomesticcropsandlivestockbutiswell-documentedinnonhumanspecies,especiallyamonganumberofsocialinsectdomesticatorsandtheirplantandanimaldomesticates,forexampletheant–fungusmutualismthatexistsbetweenleafcutterantsandcertainfungi.[1] Domesticationsyndromeisthesuiteofphenotypictraitsarisingduringdomesticationthatdistinguishcropsfromtheirwildancestors.[6][20]Thetermisalsoappliedtovertebrateanimals,andincludesincreaseddocilityandtameness,coatcolorchanges,reductionsintoothsize,changesincraniofacialmorphology,alterationsinearandtailform(e.g.,floppyears),morefrequentandnonseasonalestruscycles,alterationsinadrenocorticotropichormonelevels,changedconcentrationsofseveralneurotransmitters,prolongationsinjuvenilebehavior,andreductionsinbothtotalbrainsizeandofparticularbrainregions.[21] Causeandtiming[edit] Evolutionoftemperaturesinthepostglacialperiod,aftertheLastGlacialMaximum,showingverylowtemperaturesforthemostpartoftheYoungerDryas,rapidlyrisingafterwardstoreachthelevelofthewarmHolocene,basedonGreenlandicecores.[22] ThedomesticationofanimalsandplantswastriggeredbytheclimaticandenvironmentalchangesthatoccurredafterthepeakoftheLastGlacialMaximumaround21,000yearsagoandwhichcontinuetothispresentday.Thesechangesmadeobtainingfooddifficult.Thefirstdomesticatewasthewolf(Canislupus)atleast15,000yearsago.TheYoungerDryasthatoccurred12,900yearsagowasaperiodofintensecoldandariditythatputpressureonhumanstointensifytheirforagingstrategies.BythebeginningoftheHolocenefrom11,700yearsago,favorableclimaticconditionsandincreasinghumanpopulationsledtosmall-scaleanimalandplantdomestication,whichallowedhumanstoaugmentthefoodthattheywereobtainingthroughhunter-gathering.[2] TheNeolithictransitionledtoagriculturalsocietiesemerginginlocationsacrossEurasia,NorthAfrica,andSouthandCentralAmerica.IntheFertileCrescent10,000-11,000yearsago,zooarchaeologyindicatesthatgoats,pigs,sheep,andtaurinecattlewerethefirstlivestocktobedomesticated.Twothousandyearslater,humpedzebucattleweredomesticatedinwhatistodayBaluchistaninPakistan.InEastAsia8,000yearsago,pigsweredomesticatedfromwildboarthatweregeneticallydifferentfromthosefoundintheFertileCrescent.ThehorsewasdomesticatedontheCentralAsiansteppe5,500yearsago.BoththechickeninSoutheastAsiaandthecatinEgyptweredomesticated4,000yearsago.[2] Thesuddenappearanceofthedomesticdog(Canislupusfamiliaris)inthearchaeologicalrecordthenledtoarapidshiftintheevolution,ecology,anddemographyofbothhumansandnumerousspeciesofanimalsandplants.[23][8]Itwasfollowedbylivestockandcropdomestication,andthetransitionofhumansfromforagingtofarmingindifferentplacesandtimesacrosstheplanet.[23][24][25]Around10,000YBP,anewwayoflifeemergedforhumansthroughthemanagementandexploitationofplantandanimalspecies,leadingtohigher-densitypopulationsinthecentersofdomestication,[23][26]theexpansionofagriculturaleconomies,andthedevelopmentofurbancommunities.[23][27] Animals[edit] Theory[edit] Mainarticle:Domesticationofanimals Karakulsheep[a]andshepherdsinIran.PhotographbyHaroldF.Weston,1920s Thedomesticationofanimalsisthemutualrelationshipbetweenanimalswiththehumanswhohaveinfluenceontheircareandreproduction.[1]CharlesDarwinrecognizedthesmallnumberoftraitsthatmadedomesticspeciesdifferentfromtheirwildancestors.Hewasalsothefirsttorecognizethedifferencebetweenconsciousselectivebreedinginwhichhumansdirectlyselectfordesirabletraits,andunconsciousselectionwheretraitsevolveasaby-productofnaturalselectionorfromselectiononothertraits.[3][4][5] Thereisageneticdifferencebetweendomesticandwildpopulations.Thereisalsosuchadifferencebetweenthedomesticationtraitsthatresearchersbelievetohavebeenessentialattheearlystagesofdomestication,andtheimprovementtraitsthathaveappearedsincethesplitbetweenwildanddomesticpopulations.[6][7][8]Domesticationtraitsaregenerallyfixedwithinalldomesticates,andwereselectedduringtheinitialepisodeofdomesticationofthatanimalorplant,whereasimprovementtraitsarepresentonlyinaproportionofdomesticates,thoughtheymaybefixedinindividualbreedsorregionalpopulations.[7][8][9] Domesticationofanimalsshouldnotbeconfusedwithtaming.Tamingistheconditionedbehavioralmodificationofanindividualanimal,toreduceitsnaturalavoidanceofhumans,andtotoleratethepresenceofhumans.Domesticationisthepermanentgeneticmodificationofabredlineagethatleadstoaninheritedpredispositiontorespondcalmlytohumanpresence.[29][30][31] Certainanimalspecies,andcertainindividualswithinthosespecies,makebettercandidatesfordomesticationthanothersbecausetheyexhibitcertainbehavioralcharacteristics:[19]: Fig1 [32][33][34] Thesizeandorganizationoftheirsocialstructure Theavailabilityandthedegreeofselectivityintheirchoiceofmates Theeaseandspeedwithwhichtheparentsbondwiththeiryoung,andthematurityandmobilityoftheyoungatbirth Thedegreeofflexibilityindietandhabitattolerance;and Responsestohumansandnewenvironments,includingreducedflightresponseandreactivitytoexternalstimuli. Mammals[edit] Mainarticles:DomesticationofanimalsandListofdomesticatedanimals Thebeginningsofanimaldomesticationinvolvedaprotractedcoevolutionaryprocesswithmultiplestagesalongdifferentpathways.[8]Therearethreeproposedmajorpathwaysthatmostanimaldomesticatesfollowedintodomestication: commensals,adaptedtoahumanniche(e.g.,dogs,cats,fowl,possiblypigs); preyanimalssoughtforfood(e.g.,sheep,goats,cattle,waterbuffalo,yak,pig,reindeer,llamaandalpaca);and animalstargetedfordraftandnon-foodresources(e.g.,horse,donkey,camel).[8][13][19][35][36][37][38] Thedogwasthefirstdomesticant,[11][12]andwasestablishedacrossEurasiabeforetheendoftheLatePleistoceneera,wellbeforecultivationandbeforethedomesticationofotheranimals.[11]Humansdidnotintendtodomesticateanimalsfromeitherthecommensalorpreypathways,oratleasttheydidnotenvisionadomesticatedanimalwouldresultfromit.Inbothofthosecases,humansbecameentangledwiththesespeciesastherelationshipbetweenthemintensified,andhumans'roleintheirsurvivalandreproductionledgraduallytoformalisedanimalhusbandry.[8]Althoughthedirectedpathwayproceededfromcapturetotaming,theothertwopathwaysarenotasgoal-oriented,andarchaeologicalrecordssuggestthattheytookplaceovermuchlongertimeframes.[14] Unlikeotherdomesticspecieswhichwereprimarilyselectedforproduction-relatedtraits,dogswereinitiallyselectedfortheirbehaviors.[39][40]Thearchaeologicalandgeneticdatasuggestthatlong-termbidirectionalgeneflowbetweenwildanddomesticstocks–includingdonkeys,horses,NewandOldWorldcamelids,goats,sheep,andpigs–wascommon.[8][13]Onestudyhasconcludedthathumanselectionfordomestictraitslikelycounteractedthehomogenizingeffectofgeneflowfromwildboarsintopigsandcreateddomesticationislandsinthegenome.Thesameprocessmayalsoapplytootherdomesticatedanimals.[41][42] Birds[edit] TheredjunglefowlofSoutheastAsiawasdomesticated,apparentlyforcockfighting,some7,000yearsago. Mainarticles:PoultryandAviculture Domesticatedbirdsprincipallymeanpoultry,raisedformeatandeggs:[43]someGalliformes(chicken,turkey,guineafowl)andAnseriformes(waterfowl:duck,goose,swan).Alsowidelydomesticatedarecagebirdssuchassongbirdsandparrots;thesearekeptbothforpleasureandforuseinresearch.[44] Thedomesticpigeonhasbeenusedbothforfoodandasameansofcommunicationbetweenfar-flungplacesthroughtheexploitationofthepigeon'shominginstinct;researchsuggestsitwasdomesticatedasearlyas10,000yearsago.[45] ChickenfossilsinChinaweredated7,400yearsago.Thechicken'swildancestorisGallusgallus,theredjunglefowlofSoutheastAsia.Itappearstohavebeenkeptinitiallyforcockfightingratherthanforfood.[46] Invertebrates[edit] Furtherinformation:Domesticationofbees,Beekeeping,andSericulture Sericulturalistspreparingsilkwormsforspinningofthesilk Twoinsects,thesilkwormandthewesternhoneybee,havebeendomesticatedforover5,000years,oftenforcommercialuse.Thesilkwormisraisedforthesilkthreadswoundarounditspupalcocoon;thewesternhoneybee,forhoney,and,lately,forpollinationofcrops.[47] Severalotherinvertebrateshavebeendomesticated,bothterrestrialandaquatic,includingsomesuchasDrosophilamelanogasterfruitfliesandthefreshwatercnidarianHydraforresearchintogeneticsandphysiology.Fewhavealonghistoryofdomestication.Mostareusedforfoodorotherproductssuchasshellacandcochineal.ThephylainvolvedareCnidaria,Platyhelminthes(forbiologicalcontrol),Annelida,Mollusca,Arthropoda(marinecrustaceansaswellasinsectsandspiders),andEchinodermata.Whilemanymarinemolluscsareusedforfood,onlyafewhavebeendomesticated,includingsquid,cuttlefishandoctopus,allusedinresearchonbehaviourandneurology.TerrestrialsnailsinthegeneraHelixandMurexareraisedforfood.SeveralparasiticorparasitoidalinsectsincludingtheflyEucelatoria,thebeetleChrysolina,andthewaspAphytisareraisedforbiologicalcontrol.Consciousorunconsciousartificialselectionhasmanyeffectsonspeciesunderdomestication;variabilitycanreadilybelostbyinbreeding,selectionagainstundesiredtraits,orgeneticdrift,whileinDrosophila,variabilityineclosiontime(whenadultsemerge)hasincreased.[48] Plants[edit] Furtherinformation:Listofdomesticatedplants Thissectionneedsadditionalcitationsforverification.Pleasehelpimprovethisarticlebyaddingcitationstoreliablesources.Unsourcedmaterialmaybechallengedandremoved.(June2021)(Learnhowandwhentoremovethistemplatemessage) Theinitialdomesticationofanimalsimpactedmostonthegenesthatcontrolledtheirbehavior,buttheinitialdomesticationofplantsimpactedmostonthegenesthatcontrolledtheirmorphology(seedsize,plantarchitecture,dispersalmechanisms)andtheirphysiology(timingofgerminationorripening).[19][25] Thedomesticationofwheatprovidesanexample.Wildwheatshattersandfallstothegroundtoreseeditselfwhenripe,butdomesticatedwheatstaysonthestemforeasierharvesting.Thischangewaspossiblebecauseofarandommutationinthewildpopulationsatthebeginningofwheat'scultivation.Wheatwiththismutationwasharvestedmorefrequentlyandbecametheseedforthenextcrop.Therefore,withoutrealizing,earlyfarmersselectedforthismutation.Theresultisdomesticatedwheat,whichreliesonfarmersforitsreproductionanddissemination.[49] History[edit] Furtherinformation:Historyofagriculture Farmerswithwheatandcattle–AncientEgyptianart3,400yearsago TheearliesthumanattemptsatplantdomesticationoccurredintheMiddleEast.Thereisearlyevidenceforconsciouscultivationandtraitselectionofplantsbypre-NeolithicgroupsinSyria:grainsofryewithdomestictraitsdated13,000yearsagohavebeenrecoveredfromAbuHureyrainSyria,[50]butthisappearstobealocalisedphenomenonresultingfromcultivationofstandsofwildrye,ratherthanadefinitivesteptowardsdomestication.[50] Thebottlegourd(Lagenariasiceraria)plant,usedasacontainerbeforetheadventofceramictechnology,appearstohavebeendomesticated10,000yearsago.ThedomesticatedbottlegourdreachedtheAmericasfromAsiaby8,000yearsago,mostlikelyduetothemigrationofpeoplesfromAsiatoAmerica.[51] Cerealcropswerefirstdomesticatedaround11,000yearsagointheFertileCrescentintheMiddleEast.Thefirstdomesticatedcropsweregenerallyannualswithlargeseedsorfruits.Theseincludedpulsessuchaspeasandgrainssuchaswheat.TheMiddleEastwasespeciallysuitedtothesespecies;thedry-summerclimatewasconducivetotheevolutionoflarge-seededannualplants,andthevarietyofelevationsledtoagreatvarietyofspecies.Asdomesticationtookplacehumansbegantomovefromahunter-gatherersocietytoasettledagriculturalsociety.Thischangewouldeventuallylead,some4000to5000yearslater,tothefirstcitystatesandeventuallytheriseofcivilizationitself. Continueddomesticationwasgradual,aprocessofintermittenttrialanderror,andoftenresultedindivergingtraitsandcharacteristics.[52]Overtimeperennialsandsmalltreesincludingtheappleandtheoliveweredomesticated.Someplants,suchasthemacadamianutandthepecan,werenotdomesticateduntilrecently. Inotherpartsoftheworldverydifferentspeciesweredomesticated.IntheAmericassquash,maize,beans,andperhapsmanioc(alsoknownascassava)formedthecoreofthediet.InEastAsiamillet,rice,andsoywerethemostimportantcrops.SomeareasoftheworldsuchasSouthernAfrica,Australia,CaliforniaandsouthernSouthAmericaneversawlocalspeciesdomesticated. Differencesfromwildplants[edit] Domesticatedplantsmaydifferfromtheirwildrelativesinmanyways,including thewaytheyspreadtoamorediverseenvironmentandhaveawidergeographicrange;[53] differentecologicalpreference(sun,water,temperature,nutrients,etc.requirements),differentdiseasesusceptibility; conversionfromaperennialtoannual; lossofseeddormancyandphotoperiodiccontrols; simultaneousflowerandfruit,doubleflowers; alackofshatteringorscatteringofseeds,orevenlossoftheirdispersalmechanismscompletely; lessefficientbreedingsystem(e.g.lacknormalpollinatingorgans,makinghumaninterventionarequirement),smallerseedswithlowersuccessinthewild,orevencompletesexualsterility(e.g.seedlessfruits)andthereforeonlyvegetativereproduction; lessdefensiveadaptationssuchashairs,thorns,spines,andprickles,poison,protectivecoveringsandsturdiness,renderingthemmorelikelytobeeatenbyanimalsandpestsunlesscaredbyhumans; chemicalcomposition,givingthembetterpalatability(e.g.sugarcontent),bettersmell,andlowertoxicity;[54] ediblepartlarger,andeasierseparatedfromnon-ediblepart(e.g.freestonefruit). Theimpactofdomesticationontheplantmicrobiome[edit] Aconceptualfigureontheimpactofdomesticationontheplantendophyticmicrobiome.(a)AphylogeneticdistanceamongMalusspecieswhichcontainswildspecies(blackbranches)andprogenitorwildspecies(bluebranches).TheextendedgreenbranchrepresentsMalusdomesticawithitscloseaffiliationitsmainancestor(M. sieversii).DashedlinesindicateintrogressioneventsbetweenMalusprogenitorswhichcontributedtotheformationofM. domestica.(b)Thepredictedthreescenarios:Scenario1,reductioninspeciesdiversityduetolossinmicrobialspecies;Scenario2,increaseinmicrobialdiversityduetointrogressivehybridizationduringtheappledomestication;Scenario3,diversitywasnotaffectedbydomestication.[55] Themicrobiome,definedasthecollectionofmicroorganismsinhabitingthesurfaceandinternaltissueofplants,hasbeenshowntobeaffectedbyplantdomesticationandbreeding.Thisincludesvariationthemicrobialcommunitycomposition[56][57][55]tochangeinthenumberofmicrobialspeciesassociatedwithplants,i.e.,speciesdiversity.[58][55]Evidencealsoshowthatplantlineage,includingspeciation,domestication,andbreedinghaveshapedtheplantendophytesinsimilarpatternsasplantgenes.[55]Suchpatternsarealsoknownasphylosymbiosiswhichhavebeenobservedinseveralanimalandplantlineages.[59][60][61] Traitsthatarebeinggeneticallyimproved[edit] Therearemanychallengesfacingmodernfarmers,includingclimatechange,pests,soilsalinity,drought,andperiodswithlimitedsunlight.[62] Droughtisoneofthemostseriouschallengesfacingfarmerstoday.Withshiftingclimatescomesshiftingweatherpatterns,meaningthatregionsthatcouldtraditionallyrelyonasubstantialamountofprecipitationwere,quiteliterally,leftouttodry.Inlightoftheseconditions,droughtresistanceinmajorcropplantshasbecomeaclearpriority.[63]Onemethodistoidentifythegeneticbasisofdroughtresistanceinnaturallydroughtresistantplants,i.e.theBambaragroundnut.Next,transferringtheseadvantagestootherwisevulnerablecropplants.Rice,whichisoneofthemostvulnerablecropsintermsofdrought,hasbeensuccessfullyimprovedbytheadditionoftheBarleyhva1geneintothegenomeusingtransgenetics.Droughtresistancecanalsobeimprovedthroughchangesinaplant'srootsystemarchitecture,[64]suchasarootorientationthatmaximizeswaterretentionandnutrientuptake.Theremustbeacontinuedfocusontheefficientusageofavailablewateronaplanetthatisexpectedtohaveapopulationinexcessofnine-billionpeopleby2050. Anotherspecificareaofgeneticimprovementfordomesticatedcropsisthecropplant'suptakeandutilizationofsoilpotassium,anessentialelementforcropplantsyieldandoverallquality.Aplant'sabilitytoeffectivelyuptakepotassiumandutilizeitefficientlyisknownasitspotassiumutilizationefficiency.[65]Ithasbeensuggestedthatfirstoptimizingplantrootarchitectureandthenrootpotassiumuptakeactivitymayeffectivelyimproveplantpotassiumutilizationefficiency. Cropplantsthatarebeinggeneticallyimproved[edit] Cereals,rice,wheat,corn,sorghumandbarley,makeupahugeamountoftheglobaldietacrossalldemographicandsocialscales.Thesecerealcropplantsareallautogamous,i.e.self-fertilizing,whichlimitsoveralldiversityinalleliccombinations,andthereforeadaptabilitytonovelenvironments.[66]Tocombatthisissuetheresearcherssuggestan"IslandModelofGenomicSelection".Bybreakingasinglelargepopulationofcerealcropplantsintoseveralsmallersub-populationswhichcanreceive"migrants"fromtheothersubpopulations,newgeneticcombinationscanbegenerated. TheBambaragroundnutisadurablecropplantthat,likemanyunderutilizedcrops,hasreceivedlittleattentioninanagriculturalsense.TheBambaraGroundnutisdroughtresistantandisknowntobeabletogrowinalmostanysoilconditions,nomatterhowimpoverishedanareamaybe.Newgenomicandtranscriptomicapproachesareallowingresearcherstoimprovethisrelativelysmall-scalecrop,aswellasotherlarge-scalecropplants.[67]Thereductionincost,andwideavailabilityofbothmicroarraytechnologyandNextGenerationSequencinghavemadeitpossibletoanalyzeunderutilizedcrops,likethegroundnut,atgenome-widelevel.Notoverlookingparticularcropsthatdon'tappeartoholdanyvalueoutsideofthedevelopingworldwillbekeytonotonlyoverallcropimprovement,butalsotoreducingtheglobaldependencyononlyafewcropplants,whichholdsmanyintrinsicdangerstotheglobalpopulation'sfoodsupply.[67] Challengesfacinggeneticimprovement[edit] Thesemi-aridtropics,rangingfrompartsofNorthandSouthAfrica,AsiaespeciallyintheSouthPacific,allthewaytoAustraliaarenotoriousforbeingbotheconomicallydestituteandagriculturallydifficulttocultivateandfarmeffectively.Barriersincludeeverythingfromlackofrainfallanddiseases,toeconomicisolationandenvironmentalirresponsibility.[68]Thereisalargeinterestinthecontinuedefforts,oftheInternationalCropsResearchInstitutefortheSemi-AridTropics(ICRSAT)toimprovestaplefoods.somemandatedcropsofICRISATincludethegroundnut,pigeonpea,chickpea,sorghumandpearlmillet,whicharethemainstaplefoodsfornearlyonebillionpeopleinthesemi-aridtropics.[69]AspartoftheICRISATefforts,somewildplantbreedsarebeingusedtotransfergenestocultivatedcropsbyinterspecifichybridizationinvolvingmodernmethodsofembryorescueandtissueculture.[70]Oneexampleofearlysuccesshasbeenworktocombattheverydetrimentalpeanutclumpvirus.Transgeneticplantscontainingthecoatproteingeneforresistanceagainstpeanutclumpvirushavealreadybeenproducedsuccessfully.[69]AnotherregionthreatenedbyfoodsecurityarethePacificIslandCountries,whicharedisproportionallyfacedwiththenegativeeffectsofclimatechange.ThePacificIslandsarelargelymadeupofachainofsmallbodiesofland,whichobviouslylimitstheamountofgeographicalareainwhichtofarm.Thisleavestheregionwithonlytwoviableoptions1.)increaseagriculturalproductionor2.)increasefoodimportation.Thelatterofcourserunsintotheissuesofavailabilityandeconomicfeasibility,leavingonlythefirstoptionasaviablemeanstosolvetheregion'sfoodcrisis.Itismucheasiertomisusethelimitedresourcesremaining,ascomparedwithsolvingtheproblematitscore.[71] Workingwithwildplantstoimprovedomestics[edit] Workhasalsohasbeenfocusingonimprovingdomesticcropsthroughtheuseofcropwildrelatives.[69]Theamountanddepthofgeneticmaterialavailableincropwildrelativesislargerthanoriginallybelieved,andtherangeofplantsinvolved,bothwildanddomestic,iseverexpanding.[72]Throughtheuseofnewbiotechnologicaltoolssuchasgenomeediting,cisgenesis/intragenesis,thetransferofgenesbetweencrossabledonorspeciesincludinghybrids,andotheromicapproaches.[72] Wildplantscanbehybridizedwithcropplantstoformperennialcropsfromannuals,increaseyield,growthrate,andresistancetooutsidepressureslikediseaseanddrought.[73]Importantly,thesechangestakesignificantlengthsoftimetoachieve,sometimesevendecades.However,theoutcomecanbeextremelysuccessfulasisthecasewithahybridgrassvariantknownasKernza.[73]Overthecourseofnearlythreedecades,workwasdoneonanattemptedhybridizationbetweenanalreadydomesticatedgrassstrain,andseveralofitswildrelatives.Thedomesticatedstrainaswasmoreuniforminitsorientation,butthewildstrainswerelargerandpropagatedfaster.TheresultingKernzacrophastraitsfrombothprogenitors:uniformorientationandalinearlyverticalrootsystemfromthedomesticatedcrop,alongwithincreasedsizeandrateofpropagationfromthewildrelatives.[73] Fungiandmicro-organisms[edit] Furtherinformation:Listofdomesticatedfungiandmicroorganisms Buttonmushroomsarewidelycultivatedforfood. Severalspeciesoffungihavebeendomesticatedforusedirectlyasfood,orinfermentationtoproducefoodsanddrugs.ThewhitebuttonmushroomAgaricusbisporusiswidelygrownforfood.[74]TheyeastSaccharomycescerevisiaehavebeenusedforthousandsofyearstofermentbeerandwine,andtoleavenbread.[75]MouldfungiincludingPenicilliumareusedtomaturecheesesandotherdairyproducts,aswellastomakedrugssuchasantibiotics.[76] Effects[edit] Ondomesticanimals[edit] Selectionofanimalsforvisible"desirable"traitsmayhaveundesiredconsequences.Captiveanddomesticatedanimalsoftenhavesmallersize,piebaldcolor,shorterfaceswithsmallerandfewerteeth,diminishedhorns,weakmuscleridges,andlessgeneticvariability.Poorjointdefinition,latefusionofthelimbboneepiphyseswiththediaphyses,hairchanges,greaterfataccumulation,smallerbrains,simplifiedbehaviorpatterns,extendedimmaturity,andmorepathologyareamongthedefectsofdomesticanimals.Allofthesechangeshavebeendocumentedbyarchaeologicalevidence,andconfirmedbyanimalbreedersinthe20thcentury.[77]In2014,astudyproposedthetheorythatunderselection,docilityinmammalsandbirdsresultspartlyfromaslowedpaceofneuralcrestdevelopment,thatwouldinturncauseareducedfear–startleresponseduetomildneurocristopathythatcausesdomesticationsyndrome.Thetheorywasunabletoexplaincurlytailsnordomesticationsyndromeexhibitedbyplants.[21] Asideeffectofdomesticationhasbeenzoonoticdiseases.Forexample,cattlehavegivenhumanityvariousviralpoxes,measles,andtuberculosis;pigsandduckshavegiveninfluenza;andhorseshavegiventherhinoviruses.Manyparasiteshavetheiroriginsindomesticanimals.[4][page needed]Theadventofdomesticationresultedindenserhumanpopulationswhichprovidedripeconditionsforpathogenstoreproduce,mutate,spread,andeventuallyfindanewhostinhumans.[78] PaulShepardwrites"Mansubstitutescontrolledbreedingfornaturalselection;animalsareselectedforspecialtraitslikemilkproductionorpassivity,attheexpenseofoverallfitnessandnature-widerelationships...Thoughdomesticationbroadensthediversityofforms –thatis,increasesvisiblepolymorphism –itunderminesthecrispdemarcationsthatseparatewildspeciesandcripplesourrecognitionofthespeciesasagroup.Knowingonlydomesticanimalsdullsourunderstandingofthewayinwhichunityanddiscontinuityoccuraspatternsinnature,andsubstitutesanattentiontoindividualsandbreeds.Thewidevarietyofsize,color,shape,andformofdomestichorses,forexample,blursthedistinctionamongdifferentspeciesofEquusthatoncewereconstantandmeaningful."[79] Onsociety[edit] JaredDiamondinhisbookGuns,Germs,andSteeldescribestheuniversaltendencyforpopulationsthathaveacquiredagricultureanddomesticanimalstodevelopalargepopulationandtoexpandintonewterritories.Herecountsmigrationsofpeoplearmedwithdomesticcropsovertaking,displacingorkillingindigenoushunter-gatherers,[4]: 112 whoselifestyleiscomingtoanend.[4]: 86  Someanarcho-primitivistauthorsdescribedomesticationastheprocessbywhichpreviouslynomadichumanpopulationsshiftedtowardsasedentaryorsettledexistencethroughagricultureandanimalhusbandry.Theyclaimthatthiskindofdomesticationdemandsatotalitarianrelationshipwithboththelandandtheplantsandanimalsbeingdomesticated.Theysaythatwhereas,inastateofwildness,alllifesharesandcompetesforresources,domesticationdestroysthisbalance.Domesticatedlandscape(e.g.pastorallands/agriculturalfieldsand,toalesserdegree,horticultureandgardening)endstheopensharingofresources;where"thiswaseveryone's",itisnow"mine".Anarcho-primitivistsstatethatthisnotionofownershiplaidthefoundationforsocialhierarchyaspropertyandpoweremerged.Italsoinvolvedthedestruction,enslavement,orassimilationofothergroupsofearlypeoplewhodidnotmakesuchatransition.[80] UndertheframeworkofDialecticalnaturalism,MurrayBookchinhasarguedthatthebasicnotionofdomesticationisincomplete:That,sincethedomesticationofanimalsisacrucialdevelopmentwithinhumanhistory,itcanalsobeunderstoodasthedomesticationofhumanityitselfinturn.Underthisdialecticalframework,domesticationisalwaysa'two-waystreet'withbothpartiesbeingunavoidablyalteredbytheirrelationshipwitheachother.[81] DavidNibert,professorofsociologyatWittenbergUniversity,positsthatthedomesticationofanimals,whichhereferstoas"domesecration"asitofteninvolvedextremeviolenceagainstanimalpopulationsandthedevastationoftheenvironment,resultedinthecorruptionofhumanethics,andhelpedpavethewayforsocietiessteepedin"conquest,extermination,displacement,repression,coercedandenslavedservitude,gendersubordinationandsexualexploitation,andhunger."[82] Ondiversity[edit] Industrializedwheatharvest–NorthAmericatoday Furtherinformation:Sustainableagriculture In2016,astudyfoundthathumanshavehadamajorimpactonglobalgeneticdiversityaswellasextinctionrates,includingacontributiontomegafaunalextinctions.Pristinelandscapesnolongerexistandhavenotexistedformillennia,andhumanshaveconcentratedtheplanet'sbiomassintohuman-favoredplantsandanimals.Domesticatedecosystemsprovidefood,reducepredatorandnaturaldangers,andpromotecommerce,buthavealsoresultedinhabitatlossandextinctionscommencingintheLatePleistocene.Ecologistsandotherresearchersareadvisedtomakebetteruseofthearchaeologicalandpaleoecologicaldataavailableforgaininganunderstandingthehistoryofhumanimpactsbeforeproposingsolutions.[83] Seealso[edit] Animal–industrialcomplex Anthrozoology ColumbianExchange Domesticationtheory Experimentalevolution Geneticengineering Geneticerosion Genomicsofdomestication Historyofplantbreeding Markerassistedselection Pet Self-domestication Timelineofagricultureandfoodtechnology Wildancestors Notes[edit] ^ThisCentralAsianbreedisancient,datingperhapsto1400 BCE.[28] References[edit] ^abcdZeder,M.A.(2015)."CorequestionsindomesticationResearch".ProceedingsoftheNationalAcademyofSciencesoftheUnitedStatesofAmerica.112(11):3191–98.Bibcode:2015PNAS..112.3191Z.doi:10.1073/pnas.1501711112.PMC 4371924.PMID 25713127. ^abcMcHugo,GillianP.;Dover,MichaelJ.;Machugh,DavidE.(2019)."UnlockingtheoriginsandbiologyofdomesticanimalsusingancientDNAandpaleogenomics".BMCBiology.17(1):98.doi:10.1186/s12915-019-0724-7.PMC 6889691.PMID 31791340. ^abDarwin,Charles(1868).TheVariationofAnimalsandPlantsUnderDomestication.London:JohnMurray.OCLC 156100686. ^abcdeDiamond,Jared(1997).Guns,Germs,andSteel:Ashorthistoryofeverybodyforthelast13,000years.London:ChattoandWindus.ISBN 978-0-09-930278-0. ^abLarson,G.;Piperno,D.R.;Allaby,R.G.;Purugganan,M.D.;Andersson,L.;Arroyo-Kalin,M.;Barton,L.;ClimerVigueira,C.;Denham,T.;Dobney,K.;Doust,A.N.;Gepts,P.;Gilbert,M.T.P.;Gremillion,K.J.;Lucas,L.;Lukens,L.;Marshall,F.B.;Olsen,K.M.;Pires,J.C.;Richerson,P.J.;RubioDeCasas,R.;Sanjur,O.I.;Thomas,M.G.;Fuller,D.Q.(2014)."Currentperspectivesandthefutureofdomesticationstudies".ProceedingsoftheNationalAcademyofSciences.111(17):6139–46.Bibcode:2014PNAS..111.6139L.doi:10.1073/pnas.1323964111.PMC 4035915.PMID 24757054. ^abcOlsen,K.M.;Wendel,J.F.(2013)."Abountifulharvest:genomicinsightsintocropdomesticationphenotypes".Annu.Rev.PlantBiol.64:47–70.doi:10.1146/annurev-arplant-050312-120048.PMID 23451788.S2CID 727983. ^abcdDoust,A.N.;Lukens,L.;Olsen,K.M.;Mauro-Herrera,M.;Meyer,A.;Rogers,K.(2014)."Beyondthesinglegene:Howepistasisandgene-by-environmenteffectsinfluencecropdomestication".ProceedingsoftheNationalAcademyofSciences.111(17):6178–83.Bibcode:2014PNAS..111.6178D.doi:10.1073/pnas.1308940110.PMC 4035984.PMID 24753598. ^abcdefghijLarson,G.(2014)."TheEvolutionofAnimalDomestication"(PDF).AnnualReviewofEcology,Evolution,andSystematics.45:115–36.doi:10.1146/annurev-ecolsys-110512-135813. ^abMeyer,RachelS.;Purugganan,MichaelD.(2013)."Evolutionofcropspecies:Geneticsofdomesticationanddiversification".NatureReviewsGenetics.14(12):840–52.doi:10.1038/nrg3605.PMID 24240513.S2CID 529535. ^"Domestication".EncyclopædiaBritannica.2016.RetrievedMay26,2016. ^abcdLarson,G.(2012)."Rethinkingdogdomesticationbyintegratinggenetics,archeology,andbiogeography"(PDF).ProceedingsoftheNationalAcademyofSciencesoftheUnitedStatesofAmerica.109(23):8878–8883.Bibcode:2012PNAS..109.8878L.doi:10.1073/pnas.1203005109.PMC 3384140.PMID 22615366. ^abPerri,Angela(2016)."Awolfindog'sclothing:InitialdogdomesticationandPleistocenewolfvariation".JournalofArchaeologicalScience.68:1–4.doi:10.1016/j.jas.2016.02.003. ^abcMarshall,F.(2013)."Evaluatingtherolesofdirectedbreedingandgeneflowinanimaldomestication".ProceedingsoftheNationalAcademyofSciencesoftheUnitedStatesofAmerica.111(17):6153–6158.Bibcode:2014PNAS..111.6153M.doi:10.1073/pnas.1312984110.PMC 4035985.PMID 24753599. ^abLarson,G.(2013)."Apopulationgeneticsviewofanimaldomestication"(PDF).TrendsinGenetics.29(4):197–205.doi:10.1016/j.tig.2013.01.003.PMID 23415592. ^"Domesticate".OxfordDictionaries.OxfordUniversityPress.2014. ^LorenzoMaggioni(2015)DomesticationofBrassicaoleraceaL.,ActaUniversitatisAgriculturaeSueciae,p.38 ^Zeder,M.(2014)."Domestication:DefinitionandOverview".InSmith,Claire(ed.).EncyclopediaofGlobalArchaeology.NewYork:SpringerScience&BusinessMedia.pp. 2184–94.doi:10.1007/978-1-4419-0465-2_71.ISBN 978-1-4419-0426-3. ^Sykes,N.(2014)."AnimalRevolutions".BeastlyQuestions:AnimalAnswerstoArchaeologicalIssues.BloomsburyAcademic.pp. 25–26.ISBN 978-1-4725-0624-5. ^abcdeZeder,M.A.(2012)."Thedomesticationofanimals".JournalofAnthropologicalResearch.68(2):161–90.doi:10.3998/jar.0521004.0068.201.S2CID 85348232. ^Hammer,K.(1984)."DasDomestikationssyndrom".Kulturpflanze.32:11–34.doi:10.1007/bf02098682.S2CID 42389667. ^abWilkins,AdamS.;Wrangham,RichardW.;Fitch,W.Tecumseh(July2014)."The'DomesticationSyndrome'inMammals:AUnifiedExplanationBasedonNeuralCrestCellBehaviorandGenetics"(PDF).Genetics.197(3):795–808.doi:10.1534/genetics.114.165423.PMC 4096361.PMID 25024034. ^Zalloua,PierreA.;Matisoo-Smith,Elizabeth(January6,2017)."MappingPost-Glacialexpansions:ThePeoplingofSouthwestAsia".ScientificReports.7:40338.Bibcode:2017NatSR...740338P.doi:10.1038/srep40338.ISSN 2045-2322.PMC 5216412.PMID 28059138. ^abcdMachugh,DavidE.;Larson,Greger;Orlando,Ludovic(2016)."TamingthePast:AncientDNAandtheStudyofAnimalDomestication".AnnualReviewofAnimalBiosciences.5:329–351.doi:10.1146/annurev-animal-022516-022747.PMID 27813680.S2CID 21991146. ^Fuller,DorianQ.;Willcox,George;Allaby,RobinG.(2011)."Cultivationanddomesticationhadmultipleorigins:argumentsagainstthecoreareahypothesisfortheoriginsofagricultureintheNearEast".WorldArchaeology.43(4):628–652.doi:10.1080/00438243.2011.624747.S2CID 56437102. ^abZeder,M.A.2006."Archaeologicalapproachestodocumentinganimaldomestication".InDocumentingDomestication: NewGeneticandArchaeologicalParadigms,eds.M.A.Zeder,D.G.Bradley,E.Emshwiller,B.D.Smith,pp.209–27.Berkeley:Univ.Calif.Press ^Bocquet-Appel,J.P.(2011)."Whentheworld'spopulationtookoff:thespringboardoftheNeolithicDemographicTransition".Science.333(6042):560–61.Bibcode:2011Sci...333..560B.doi:10.1126/science.1208880.PMID 21798934.S2CID 29655920. ^BarkerG.2006.TheAgriculturalRevolutioninPrehistory:WhyDidForagersBecomeFarmers?Oxford:OxfordUniv.Press ^"Karakul".BreedsofLivestock.OklahomaStateUniversity.RetrievedOctober2,2017. ^Price,EdwardO.(2008).Principlesandapplicationsofdomesticanimalbehavior:anintroductorytext.CambridgeUniversityPress.ISBN 978-1-78064-055-6.RetrievedJanuary21,2016. ^Driscoll,C.A.;MacDonald,D.W.;O'Brien,S.J.(2009)."Fromwildanimalstodomesticpets,anevolutionaryviewofdomestication".ProceedingsoftheNationalAcademyofSciences.106:9971–78.Bibcode:2009PNAS..106.9971D.doi:10.1073/pnas.0901586106.PMC 2702791.PMID 19528637. ^Diamond,Jared(2012)."Chapter1".InGepts,P.(ed.).BiodiversityinAgriculture:Domestication,Evolution,andSustainability.CambridgeUniversityPress.p. 13. ^Hale,E.B.1969."Domesticationandtheevolutionofbehavior,"inThebehaviorofdomesticanimals,secondedition.EditedbyE.S.E.Hafez,pp.22–42.London:Bailliere,Tindall,andCassell ^Price,EdwardO.(1984)."Behavioralaspectsofanimaldomestication".QuarterlyReviewofBiology.59(1):1–32.doi:10.1086/413673.JSTOR 2827868.S2CID 83908518. ^Price,EdwardO.(2002).Animaldomesticationandbehavior(PDF).Wallingford,UK:CABIPublishing.Archivedfromtheoriginal(PDF)onMay17,2017.RetrievedFebruary29,2016. ^Frantz,L.(2015)."TheEvolutionofSuidae".AnnualReviewofAnimalBiosciences.4:61–85.doi:10.1146/annurev-animal-021815-111155.PMID 26526544. ^Blaustein,R.(2015)."UnravelingtheMysteriesofAnimalDomestication:Whole-genomesequencingchallengesoldassumptions".BioScience.65(1):7–13.doi:10.1093/biosci/biu201. ^Vahabi,M.(2015)."Humanspeciesasthemasterpredator".ThePoliticalEconomyofPredation:ManhuntingandtheEconomicsofEscape.CambridgeUniversityPress.p. 72.ISBN 978-1-107-13397-6. ^PaulGepts,ed.(2012)."9".BiodiversityinAgriculture:Domestication,Evolution,andSustainability.CambridgeUniversityPress.pp. 227–59. ^SerpellJ,DuffyD."DogBreedsandTheirBehavior".In:DomesticDogCognitionandBehavior.Berlin,Heidelberg:Springer;2014 ^Cagan,Alex;Blass,Torsten(2016)."Identificationofgenomicvariantsputativelytargetedbyselectionduringdogdomestication".BMCEvolutionaryBiology.16:10.doi:10.1186/s12862-015-0579-7.PMC 4710014.PMID 26754411. ^Frantz,L.(2015)."Evidenceoflong-termgeneflowandselectionduringdomesticationfromanalysesofEurasianwildanddomesticpiggenomes".NatureGenetics.47(10):1141–48.doi:10.1038/ng.3394.PMID 26323058.S2CID 205350534. ^Pennisi,E(2015)."Thetamingofthepigtooksomewildturns".Science.doi:10.1126/science.aad1692. ^"Poultry".TheAmericanHeritage:DictionaryoftheEnglishLanguage.4thedition.HoughtonMifflinCompany.2009. ^"AviculturalSocietyofAmerica".AviculturalSocietyofAmerica.RetrievedMarch25,2017. ^Blechman,Andrew(2007).Pigeons–Thefascinatingsagaoftheworld'smostreveredandreviledbird.UniversityofQueenslandPress.ISBN 978-0-7022-3641-9. ^Lawler,Andrew;Adler,Jerry(June2012)."HowtheChickenConqueredtheWorld".SmithsonianMagazine(June2012). ^Bailey,Leslie;Ball,B.V.(2013).HoneyBeePathology.Elsevier.pp. 7–8.ISBN 978-1-4832-8809-3. ^GonIII,SamuelM.;Price,EdwardO.(October1984)."InvertebrateDomestication:BehavioralConsiderations".BioScience.34(9):575–79.doi:10.2307/1309600.JSTOR 1309600. ^Zohary,D.;Hopf,M.(2000).DomesticationofPlantsintheOldWorldOxfordUniversityPress.[page needed] ^abHillman,G.;Hedges,R.;Moore,A.;Colledge,S.;Pettitt,P.(2001)."NewevidenceofLateglacialcerealcultivationatAbuHureyraontheEuphrates".Holocene.11(4):383–93.Bibcode:2001Holoc..11..383H.doi:10.1191/095968301678302823.S2CID 84930632. ^Erickson,D.L.;Smith,B.D.;Clarke,A.C.;Sandweiss,D.H.;Tuross,N.(December2005)."AnAsianoriginfora10,000-year-olddomesticatedplantintheAmericas".ProceedingsoftheNationalAcademyofSciencesoftheUnitedStatesofAmerica.102(51):18315–20.Bibcode:2005PNAS..10218315E.doi:10.1073/pnas.0509279102.PMC 1311910.PMID 16352716. ^Hughes,Aoife;Oliveira,HR;Fradgley,N;Corke,F;Cockram,J;Doonan,JH;Nibau,C(March14,2019)."μCTtraitanalysisrevealsmorphometricdifferencesbetweendomesticatedtemperatesmallgraincerealsandtheirwildrelatives".ThePlantJournal.99(1):98–111.doi:10.1111/tpj.14312.PMC 6618119.PMID 30868647. ^Zeven,A.C.;deWit,J.M.(1982).DictionaryofCultivatedPlantsandTheirRegionsofDiversity,ExcludingMostOrnamentals,ForestTreesandLowerPlants.Wageningen,Netherlands:CentreforAgriculturalPublishingandDocumentation. ^Wu,Yuye;Guo,Tingting;Mu,Qi;Wang,Jinyu;Li,Xin;Wu,Yun;Tian,Bin;Wang,MingLi;Bai,Guihua;Perumal,Ramasamy;Trick,HaroldN.(December2019)."AllelochemicalstargetedtobalancecompetingselectionsinAfricanagroecosystems".NaturePlants.5(12):1229–1236.doi:10.1038/s41477-019-0563-0.ISSN 2055-0278.PMID 31792396.S2CID 208539527. ^abcdAbdelfattah,Ahmed;Tack,AycoJ.M.;Wasserman,Birgit;Liu,Jia;Berg,Gabriele;Norelli,John;Droby,Samir;Wisniewski,Michael."Evidenceforhost–microbiomeco-evolutioninapple".NewPhytologist.n/a(n/a).doi:10.1111/nph.17820.ISSN 1469-8137. ^Mutch,LesleyA.;Young,J.PeterW.(2004)."DiversityandspecificityofRhizobiumleguminosarumbiovarviciaeonwildandcultivatedlegumes".MolecularEcology.13(8):2435–2444.doi:10.1111/j.1365-294X.2004.02259.x.ISSN 1365-294X. ^Kiers,E.Toby;Hutton,MarkG;Denison,R.Ford(December22,2007)."Humanselectionandtherelaxationoflegumedefencesagainstineffectiverhizobia".ProceedingsoftheRoyalSocietyB:BiologicalSciences.274(1629):3119–3126.doi:10.1098/rspb.2007.1187.PMC 2293947.PMID 17939985. ^Coleman-Derr,Devin;Desgarennes,Damaris;Fonseca-Garcia,Citlali;Gross,Stephen;Clingenpeel,Scott;Woyke,Tanja;North,Gretchen;Visel,Axel;Partida-Martinez,LailaP.;Tringe,SusannahG.(2016)."PlantcompartmentandbiogeographyaffectmicrobiomecompositionincultivatedandnativeAgavespecies".NewPhytologist.209(2):798–811.doi:10.1111/nph.13697.ISSN 1469-8137.PMC 5057366.PMID 26467257. ^Bouffaud,Marie-Lara;Poirier,Marie-Andrée;Muller,Daniel;Moënne-Loccoz,Yvan(2014)."RootmicrobiomerelatestoplanthostevolutioninmaizeandotherPoaceae".EnvironmentalMicrobiology.16(9):2804–2814.doi:10.1111/1462-2920.12442.ISSN 1462-2920. ^Abdullaeva,Yulduzkhon;AmbikaManirajan,Binoy;Honermeier,Bernd;Schnell,Sylvia;Cardinale,Massimiliano(July1,2021)."Domesticationaffectsthecomposition,diversity,andco-occurrenceofthecerealseedmicrobiota".JournalofAdvancedResearch.31:75–86.doi:10.1016/j.jare.2020.12.008.ISSN 2090-1232.PMC 8240117.PMID 34194833. ^Favela,Alonso;O.Bohn,Martin;D.Kent,Angela(August2021)."Maizegermplasmchronosequenceshowscropbreedinghistoryimpactsrecruitmentoftherhizospheremicrobiome".TheISMEJournal.15(8):2454–2464.doi:10.1038/s41396-021-00923-z.ISSN 1751-7370.PMC 8319409. ^Horton,Peter(2000)."Prospectsforcropimprovementthroughthegeneticmanipulationofphotosynthesis:morphologicalandbiochemicalaspectsoflightcapture".JournalofExperimentalBotany.51:475–85.doi:10.1093/jexbot/51.suppl_1.475.JSTOR 23696526.PMID 10938855. ^Mitra,Jiban(2001)."Geneticsandgeneticimprovementofdroughtresistanceincropplants".CurrentScience.80(6):758–63.JSTOR 24105661. ^Forester;et al.(2007)."Rootsystemarchitecture:Opportunitiesandconstraintsforgeneticimprovementofcrops".TrendsinPlantScience.12(10):474–81.doi:10.1016/j.tplants.2007.08.012.PMID 17822944. ^Wang,Yi;Wu,Wei-Hua(2015)."Geneticapproachesforimprovementofthecroppotassiumacquisitionandutilizationefficiency".CurrentOpinioninPlantBiology.25:46–52.doi:10.1016/j.pbi.2015.04.007.PMID 25941764. ^Shion,Yabe;et al.(2016)."Island-modelGenomicSelectionforLong-termGeneticImprovementofAutogamousCrops".PLOSONE.11(4):e0153945.Bibcode:2016PLoSO..1153945Y.doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0153945.PMC 4846018.PMID 27115872. ^abKhan,F;Azman,R;Chai,H.H;Mayes,S;Lu,C(2016)."Genomicandtranscriptomicapproachestowardsthegeneticimprovementofanunderutilizedcrops:thecaseofbambaragroundnut".AfricanCropScienceJournal.24(4):429–58.doi:10.4314/acsj.v24i4.9. ^Sharma,KiranK.;Ortiz,Rodomiro(2000)."ProgramfortheApplicationofGeneticTransformationforCropImprovementintheSemi-AridTropics"(PDF).InVitroCellular&DevelopmentalBiology.36(2):83–92.doi:10.1007/s11627-000-0019-1.S2CID 10072809. ^abcZhang,Hengyou;Mittal,Neha;Leamy,LarryJ.;Barazani,Oz;Song,Bao-Hua(2016)."Backintothewild–Applyuntappedgeneticdiversityofwildrelativesforcropimprovement".EvolutionaryApplications.10(1):5–24.doi:10.1111/eva.12434.PMC 5192947.PMID 28035232. ^Kilian,B.;et al.(2010)."Accessinggeneticdiversityforcropimprovement"(PDF).CurrentOpinioninPlantBiology.13(2):167–73.doi:10.1016/j.pbi.2010.01.004.PMID 20167531. ^Lebot,Vincent(December2013)."Copingwithinsularity:TheneedforcropgeneticimprovementtostrengthenadaptationtoclimaticchangeandfoodsecurityinthePacific".Environment,DevelopmentandSustainability.15(6):1405–23.doi:10.1007/s10668-013-9445-1.S2CID 154550463. ^abMorrell,Peter;et al.(2007)."PlantDomestication,aUniqueOpportunitytoIdentifytheGeneticBasisofAdaptation".ProceedingsoftheNationalAcademyofSciences.104(Suppl1):8641–48.Bibcode:2007PNAS..104.8641R.doi:10.1073/pnas.0700643104.PMC 1876441.PMID 17494757. ^abcvanTassel,D.;DeHann,L.(2013)."Wildplantstotherescue:effortstodomesticatenew,high-Yield,perennialgraincropsrequirepatienceandpersistence–butsuchplantscouldtransformagriculture".AmericanScientist. ^"Agaricusbisporus:TheButtonMushroom".MushroomExpert.com.RetrievedMarch25,2017. ^Legras,Jean-Luc;Merdinoglu,Didier;Cornuet,Jean-Marie;Karst,Francis(2007)."Bread,beerandwine:Saccharomycescerevisiaediversityreflectshumanhistory".MolecularEcology.16(10):2091–102.doi:10.1111/j.1365-294X.2007.03266.x.PMID 17498234.S2CID 13157807. ^"Pfizer'sworkonpenicillinforWorldWarIIbecomesaNationalHistoricChemicalLandmark".AmericanChemicalSociety.June12,2008. ^Berry,R.J.(1969)."TheGeneticalImplicationsofDomesticationinAnimals".InUcko,PeterJ.;Dimbleby,G.W.(eds.).TheDomesticationandExploitationofPlantsandAnimals.Chicago:Aldine.pp. 207–17. ^Caldararo,NiccoloLeo(2012)."EvolutionaryAspectsofDiseaseAvoidance:TheRoleofDiseaseintheDevelopmentofComplexSociety".SSRNWorkingPaperSeries.doi:10.2139/ssrn.2001098.ISSN 1556-5068.S2CID 87639702. ^Shepard,Paul(1973)."ChapterOne:TenThousandYearsofCrisis".TheTenderCarnivoreandtheSacredGame.UniversityofGeorgiaPress.pp. 10–11. ^Boyden,StephenVickers(1992)."Biohistory:Theinterplaybetweenhumansocietyandthebiosphere,pastandpresent".ManandtheBiosphereSeries.8(supplement173):665.Bibcode:1992EnST...26..665..doi:10.1021/es00028a604. ^Bookchin,Murray.ThePhilosophyofSocialEcology,p.85-7. ^Nibert,David(2013).AnimalOppressionandHumanViolence:Domesecration,Capitalism,andGlobalConflict.ColumbiaUniversityPress.pp. 1–5.ISBN 978-0231151894. ^Boivin,NicoleL.;Zeder,MelindaA.;Fuller,DorianQ.;Crowther,Alison;Larson,Greger;Erlandson,JonM.;Denham,Tim;Petraglia,MichaelD.(2016)."Ecologicalconsequencesofhumannicheconstruction:Examininglong-termanthropogenicshapingofglobalspeciesdistributions".ProceedingsoftheNationalAcademyofSciences.113(23):6388–96.doi:10.1073/pnas.1525200113.PMC 4988612.PMID 27274046. Furtherreading[edit] Halcrow,S.E.;Harris,N.J.;Tayles,N.;Ikehara-Quebral,R.;Pietrusewsky,M.(2013)."Fromthemouthsofbabes:DentalcariesininfantsandchildrenandtheintensificationofagricultureinmainlandSoutheastAsia".Am.J.Phys.Anthropol.150(3):409–20.doi:10.1002/ajpa.22215.PMID 23359102. BrianHareandVanessaWoods,"SurvivaloftheFriendliest:NaturalselectionforhypersocialtraitsenabledEarth'sapexspeciestobestNeandertalsandothercompetitors",ScientificAmerican,vol.323,no.2(August2020),pp. 58–63. Hayden,B.(2003)."Wereluxuryfoodsthefirstdomesticates?EthnoarchaeologicalperspectivesfromSoutheastAsia".WorldArchaeology.34(3):458–69.doi:10.1080/0043824021000026459a.S2CID 162526285. Marciniak,Arkadiusz(2005).PlacingAnimalsintheNeolithic:SocialZooarchaeologyofPrehistoricFarmingCommunities.London:UCLPress.ISBN 978-1-84472-092-7. Externallinks[edit] Lookupdomestication ortaminginWiktionary,thefreedictionary. CropWildRelativeInventoryandGapAnalysis:reliableinformationsourceonwhereandwhattoconserveex-situ,forcropgenepoolsofglobalimportance DiscussionofanimaldomesticationwithJaredDiamond TheInitialDomesticationofCucurbitapepointheAmericas10,000YearsAgo Cattledomesticationdiagram Majortopic'domestication':freefull-textarticles(morethan100plusreviews)inNationalLibraryofMedicine vtePrehistorictechnology Prehistory Timeline Outline StoneAge Subdivisions NewStoneAge Technology history Glossary ToolsFarming NeolithicRevolution Foundercrops NewWorldcrops Ard /plough Celt Diggingstick Domestication Goad Irrigation Secondaryproducts Sickle Terracing Foodprocessing Fire Basket Cooking Earthoven Granaries Grindingslab Groundstone Hearth AşıklıHöyük Qesemcave Manos Metate Mortarandpestle Pottery Quern-stone Storagepits Hunting Arrow Boomerang throwingstick Bowandarrow history Nets Spear spear-thrower baton harpoon woomera Schöningenspears Projectilepoints Arrowhead BareIsland Cascade Clovis Cresswell Cumberland Eden Folsom Lamoka ManisSite Plano Transversearrowhead Systems Gamedrivesystem Buffalojump Toolmaking Earliesttoolmaking Oldowan Acheulean Mousterian Aurignacian Clovisculture Cupstone Firehardening Gravettianculture Hafting Handaxe Grooves Langdaleaxeindustry Levalloistechnique Lithiccore Lithicreduction analysis debitage flake Lithictechnology Magdalenianculture Metallurgy Microbladetechnology Mining Prepared-coretechnique Solutreanindustry Strikingplatform Toolstone Uniface Yubetsutechnique Othertools Adze Awl bone Axe Bannerstone Blade prismatic Bonetool Bowdrill Burin Canoe Oar Pessecanoe Chopper tool Cleaver Denticulatetool Fireplough Fire-saw Hammerstone Knife Microlith Quern-stone Racloir Rope Scraper side Stonetool Tallystick Weapons Wheel illustration ArchitectureCeremonial Kiva Pyramid Standingstones megalith row Stonehenge Dwellings Neolithicarchitecture longhouse Britishmegalitharchitecture Nordicmegalitharchitecture Burdei Cave Cliffdwelling Dugout Hut Quigglyhole Jacal Longhouse Mudbrick Mehrgarh Pit-house Pueblitos Pueblo Rockshelter BlombosCave AbridelaMadeleine SibuduCave Roundhouse Stilthouse Alppiledwellings Stoneroof Wattleanddaub Watermanagement Checkdam Cistern Flushtoilet Reservoir Well Otherarchitecture Archaeologicalfeatures Broch Burntmound fulachtfiadh Causewayedenclosure Torenclosure Circularenclosure Goseck Cursus Henge Thornborough Megalithicarchitecturalelements Midden Oldestsurvivingbuildings Timbercircle Timbertrackway SweetTrack ArtsandcultureMaterialgoods Baskets Beadwork Beds Chalcolithic Clothing/textiles timeline Cosmetics Glue Hides shoes Ötzi Jewelry amberuse Mirrors Pottery Cardium Cord-marked Groovedware Linear Jōmon Unstanware Sewingneedle Weaving Wine winery winepress Prehistoricart ArtoftheUpperPaleolithic ArtoftheMiddlePaleolithic BlombosCave ListofStoneAgeart Birdstone Cairn Carvedstoneballs Cavepaintings Cupandringmark Geoglyph Goldenhats Guardianstones GwionGwionrockpaintings painting pigment Megalithicart Petroform Petroglyph Petrosomatoglyph Pictogram Rockart Rockcupule Stonecarving Sculpture Statuemenhir Stonecircle list BritishIslesandBrittany Venusfigurine Burial Burialmounds Bowlbarrow Roundbarrow MoundBuildersculture U.S.sites Chambertomb Cotswold-Severn Cist Dartmoorkistvaens Clavacairn Courttomb Cremation Dolmen Greatdolmen Funeralpyre Gallerygrave transepted wedge-shaped Gravegoods Jarburial Longbarrow unchambered Grønsalen Megalithictomb Mummy Passagegrave Rectangulardolmen Ringcairn Simpledolmen Stoneboxgrave Torcairn Unchamberedlongcairn Othercultural Archaeoastronomy sites lunarcalendar Behavioralmodernity Evolutionarymusicology musicarchaeology Evolutionaryoriginofreligions Paleolithicreligion Prehistoricreligion Spiritualdruguse Originoflanguage Prehistoriccounting Prehistoricmedicine trepanning Prehistoricmusic Alligatordrum flutes DivjeBabeflute gudi Prehistoricwarfare Symbols symbolism vteDomesticationofanimalsVertebrates Alpaca Bactriancamel Balicattle Cat Cattle Chicken Dog Donkey Dromedary Domesticduck DomesticMuscovyduck Gayal Goat Guineapig Horse Llama Domesticpig Fancymouse Poultry Domesticrabbit Reindeer Sheep Domesticatedsilverfox Waterbuffalo Yak Zebu Invertebrates Honeybee Silkworm History Evolutionofthedomesticatedcat CatsinancientEgypt Originofthedomesticdog Evolutionofdomesticgoats DomesticationoftheSyrianhamster Domesticationofthehorse theories DomesticatedanimalsofAustronesia Historyofthedomesticsheep Relatedtopics Listofdomesticatedanimals Selectivebreeding Self-domestication TheVariationofAnimalsandPlantsUnderDomestication Genomicsofdomestication AuthoritycontrolGeneral IntegratedAuthorityFile(Germany) Nationallibraries France(data) UnitedStates Latvia Other SUDOC(France) 1 2 Retrievedfrom"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Domestication&oldid=1064898155" Categories:DomesticationHistoryofagricultureHiddencategories:CS1:longvolumevalueWikipediaarticlesneedingpagenumbercitationsfromMay2011ArticleswithshortdescriptionShortdescriptionisdifferentfromWikidataUsemdydatesfromSeptember2020ArticlescontainingLatin-languagetextAllarticleswithunsourcedstatementsArticleswithunsourcedstatementsfromJune2021ArticlesneedingadditionalreferencesfromJune2021AllarticlesneedingadditionalreferencesWikipediaarticlesneedingpagenumbercitationsfromJanuary2016ArticleswithGNDidentifiersArticleswithBNFidentifiersArticleswithLCCNidentifiersArticleswithLNBidentifiersArticleswithSUDOCidentifiersArticleswithmultipleidentifiers Navigationmenu Personaltools NotloggedinTalkContributionsCreateaccountLogin Namespaces ArticleTalk Variants expanded collapsed Views ReadEditViewhistory More expanded collapsed Search Navigation MainpageContentsCurrenteventsRandomarticleAboutWikipediaContactusDonate Contribute HelpLearntoeditCommunityportalRecentchangesUploadfile Tools WhatlinkshereRelatedchangesUploadfileSpecialpagesPermanentlinkPageinformationCitethispageWikidataitem Print/export DownloadasPDFPrintableversion Inotherprojects WikimediaCommons Languages AfrikaansAlemannischالعربيةAragonésঅসমীয়াAsturianuAzərbaycancaবাংলাBân-lâm-gúБашҡортсаБеларускаяБеларуская(тарашкевіца)БългарскиBosanskiBrezhonegCatalàČeštinaCymraegDanskDavvisámegiellaDeutschEestiΕλληνικάEspañolEsperantoEuskaraفارسیFijiHindiFrançaisGalego한국어Հայերենहिन्दीHrvatskiIlokanoBahasaIndonesiaÍslenskaItalianoעבריתქართულიҚазақшаKiswahiliKriyòlgwiyannenКыргызчаLatinaLatviešuLietuviųLimburgsLingálaMagyarМакедонскиമലയാളംBahasaMelayuМонголမြန်မာဘာသာNederlandsनेपालभाषा日本語НохчийнNorskbokmålNorsknynorskOccitanOʻzbekcha/ўзбекчаਪੰਜਾਬੀپنجابیPiemontèisPolskiPortuguêsRomânăRunaSimiРусиньскыйРусскийСахатылаSeelterskShqipSimpleEnglishSlovenčinaSlovenščinaکوردیСрпски/srpskiSrpskohrvatski/српскохрватскиSuomiSvenskaTagalogதமிழ்TaqbaylitТатарча/tatarçaไทยTürkçeУкраїнськаاردوTiếngViệtWinaray吴语ייִדיש粵語中文 Editlinks