Capital punishment - Wikipedia

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Capital punishment, also known as the death penalty, is a state-sanctioned practice of killing a person as a punishment for a crime. The sentence ordering ... Capitalpunishment FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia Jumptonavigation Jumptosearch State-sanctionedpracticeofkillingahumanbeingaspunishmentforacrime NottobeconfusedwithCorporalpunishment. Severaltermsredirecthere.Forotheruses,seeDeathpenalty(disambiguation),Deathsentence(disambiguation),Execution(disambiguation)andCapitalpunishment(disambiguation). Criminalprocedure Criminaltrialsandconvictions Rightsoftheaccused Fairtrial Pre-trial Speedytrial Jurytrial Counsel Presumptionofinnocence Exclusionaryrule1 Self-incrimination Doublejeopardy2 Bail Verdict Conviction Acquittal Notproven3 Directedverdict Sentencing Mandatory Suspended Custodial Periodic Discharge Guidelines Totality5, 6 Dangerousoffender4, 5 Capitalpunishment Executionwarrant Cruelandunusualpunishment Imprisonment Lifeimprisonment Indefiniteimprisonment Three-strikeslaw Post-sentencing Parole Probation Tariff 6 Lifelicence6 Miscarriageofjustice Exoneration Pardon Recidivism Habitualoffender Sexoffenderregistry Sexuallyviolentpredatorlaws1 Relatedareasoflaw Criminaldefenses Criminallaw Evidence Civilprocedure Portals  Lawportal 1 UScourts 2 NotinEnglish/Welshcourts 3 Scottishcourts 4 English/Welshcourts 5 Canadiancourts 6 UKcourts vte Capitalpunishment,alsoknownasthedeathpenalty,isastate-sanctionedpracticeofkillingapersonasapunishmentforacrime.Thesentenceorderingthatanoffenderistobepunishedinsuchamannerisknownasadeathsentence,andtheactofcarryingoutthesentenceisknownasanexecution.Aprisonerwhohasbeensentencedtodeathandawaitsexecutioniscondemnedandiscommonlyreferredtoasbeing"ondeathrow". Crimesthatarepunishablebydeathareknownascapitalcrimes,capitaloffences,orcapitalfelonies,andvarydependingonthejurisdiction,butcommonlyincludeseriouscrimesagainstthepersonsuchasmurder,massmurder,aggravatedcasesofrape(oftenincludingchildsexualabuse),terrorism,aircrafthijacking,warcrimes,crimesagainsthumanity,andgenocide,alongwithcrimesagainstthestatesuchasattemptingtooverthrowgovernment,treason,espionage,sedition,andpiracy,amongothercrimes.Also,insomecases,actsofrecidivism,aggravatedrobbery,andkidnapping,inadditiontodrugtrafficking,drugdealing,anddrugpossession,arecapitalcrimesorenhancements. Etymologically,thetermcapital(lit."ofthehead",derivedviatheLatincapitalisfromcaput,"head")referstoexecutionbybeheading,[1]butexecutionsarecarriedoutbymanymethodsincludinghanging,shooting,lethalinjection,stoning,electrocution,andgassing. Fifty-fourcountriesretaincapitalpunishment,107countrieshavecompletelyabolisheditdejureforallcrimes,sevenhaveabolisheditforordinarycrimes(whilemaintainingitforspecialcircumstancessuchaswarcrimes),and27areabolitionistinpractice.[2][3]Althoughmostnationshaveabolishedcapitalpunishment,over60%oftheworld'spopulationliveincountrieswherethedeathpenaltyisretained,suchasChina,India,partsoftheUnitedStates,Indonesia,Pakistan,Bangladesh,Nigeria,Egypt,SaudiArabia,Iran,Japan,andTaiwan.[4][5][6][7][8] Capitalpunishmentiscontroversialinseveralcountriesandstates,andpositionscanvarywithinasinglepoliticalideologyorculturalregion.IntheEuropeanUnion(EU),Article2oftheCharterofFundamentalRightsoftheEuropeanUnionprohibitstheuseofcapitalpunishment.[9]TheCouncilofEurope,whichhas47memberstates,hassoughttoabolishtheuseofthedeathpenaltybyitsmembersabsolutely,throughProtocol13oftheEuropeanConventiononHumanRights.However,thisonlyaffectsthosememberstateswhichhavesignedandratifiedit,andtheydonotincludeArmenia,Russia,andAzerbaijan.TheUnitedNationsGeneralAssemblyhasadopted,throughouttheyearsfrom2007to2020,[10]eightnon-bindingresolutionscallingforaglobalmoratoriumonexecutions,withaviewtoeventualabolition.[11] Contents 1History 1.1Ancienthistory 1.2AncientGreece 1.3AncientRome 1.4China 1.5MiddleAges 1.6Enlightenmentphilosophy 1.7Modernera 1.820thcentury 1.9Contemporaryera 2Historyofabolition 3Contemporaryuse 3.1Bycountry 3.2Modern-daypublicopinion 3.3Juvenileoffenders 3.4Methods 3.5Publicexecution 4Capitalcrime 4.1Crimesagainsthumanity 4.2Murder 4.3Drugtrafficking 4.4Otheroffences 5Controversyanddebate 5.1Retribution 5.2Humanrights 5.3Non-painfulexecution 5.4Wrongfulexecution 5.5Volunteers 5.6Racial,ethnicandsocialclassbias 5.7Internationalviews 5.8Religiousviews 6Seealso 7Notesandreferences 7.1Notes 7.1.1Explanatorynotes 7.1.2References 7.2Bibliography 8Furtherreading 9Externallinks 9.1Infavour 9.2Opposing 9.3Religiousviews History AnarchistAugusteVaillantabouttobeguillotinedinFrancein1894 ExecutionofcriminalsanddissidentshasbeenusedbynearlyallsocietiessincethebeginningofcivilizationsonEarth.[12]Untilthenineteenthcentury,withoutdevelopedprisonsystems,therewasfrequentlynoworkablealternativetoensuredeterrenceandincapacitationofcriminals.[13]Inpre-moderntimestheexecutionsthemselvesofteninvolvedtorturewithcruelandpainfulmethods,suchasthebreakingwheel,keelhauling,sawing,hanging,drawing,andquartering,burningatthestake,flaying,slowslicing,boilingalive,impalement,mazzatello,blowingfromagun,schwedentrunk,andscaphism.Othermethodswhichappearonlyinlegendincludethebloodeagleandbrazenbull. Theuseofformalexecutionextendstothebeginningofrecordedhistory.Mosthistoricalrecordsandvariousprimitivetribalpracticesindicatethatthedeathpenaltywasapartoftheirjusticesystem.Communalpunishmentsforwrongdoinggenerallyincludedbloodmoneycompensationbythewrongdoer,corporalpunishment,shunning,banishmentandexecution.Intribalsocieties,compensationandshunningwereoftenconsideredenoughasaformofjustice.[14]Theresponsetocrimescommittedbyneighbouringtribes,clansorcommunitiesincludedaformalapology,compensation,bloodfeuds,andtribalwarfare. Abloodfeudorvendettaoccurswhenarbitrationbetweenfamiliesortribesfailsoranarbitrationsystemisnon-existent.Thisformofjusticewascommonbeforetheemergenceofanarbitrationsystembasedonstateororganizedreligion.Itmayresultfromcrime,landdisputesoracodeofhonour."Actsofretaliationunderscoretheabilityofthesocialcollectivetodefenditselfanddemonstratetoenemies(aswellaspotentialallies)thatinjurytoproperty,rights,orthepersonwillnotgounpunished."[15] Inmostcountriesthatpractisecapitalpunishment,itisnowreservedformurder,terrorism,warcrimes,espionage,treason,oraspartofmilitaryjustice.Insomecountriessexualcrimes,suchasrape,fornication,adultery,incest,sodomy,andbestialitycarrythedeathpenalty,asdoreligiouscrimessuchasHudud,Zina,andQisascrimes,suchasapostasy(formalrenunciationofthestatereligion),blasphemy,moharebeh,hirabah,Fasad,Mofsed-e-filarzandwitchcraft.Inmanycountriesthatusethedeathpenalty,drugtraffickingandoftendrugpossessionisalsoacapitaloffence.InChina,humantraffickingandseriouscasesofcorruptionandfinancialcrimesarepunishedbythedeathpenalty.Inmilitariesaroundtheworldcourts-martialhaveimposeddeathsentencesforoffencessuchascowardice,desertion,insubordination,andmutiny.[16] Ancienthistory TheChristianMartyrs'LastPrayer,byJean-LéonGérôme(1883).RomanCircusMaximus. Elaborationsoftribalarbitrationoffeudsincludedpeacesettlementsoftendoneinareligiouscontextandcompensationsystem.Compensationwasbasedontheprincipleofsubstitutionwhichmightincludematerial(forexample,cattle,slaves,land)compensation,exchangeofbridesorgrooms,orpaymentoftheblooddebt.Settlementrulescouldallowforanimalbloodtoreplacehumanblood,ortransfersofpropertyorbloodmoneyorinsomecaseanofferofapersonforexecution.Thepersonofferedforexecutiondidnothavetobeanoriginalperpetratorofthecrimebecausethesocialsystemwasbasedontribesandclans,notindividuals.Bloodfeudscouldberegulatedatmeetings,suchastheNorsementhings.[17]Systemsderivingfrombloodfeudsmaysurvivealongsidemoreadvancedlegalsystemsorbegivenrecognitionbycourts(forexample,trialbycombatorbloodmoney).Oneofthemoremodernrefinementsofthebloodfeudistheduel. BeheadingofJohntheBaptist,woodcutbyJuliusSchnorrvonKarolsfeld,1860 Incertainpartsoftheworld,nationsintheformofancientrepublics,monarchiesortribaloligarchiesemerged.Thesenationswereoftenunitedbycommonlinguistic,religiousorfamilyties.Moreover,expansionofthesenationsoftenoccurredbyconquestofneighbouringtribesornations.Consequently,variousclassesofroyalty,nobility,variouscommonersandslavesemerged.Accordingly,thesystemsoftribalarbitrationweresubmergedintoamoreunifiedsystemofjusticewhichformalizedtherelationbetweenthedifferent"socialclasses"ratherthan"tribes".TheearliestandmostfamousexampleisCodeofHammurabiwhichsetthedifferentpunishmentandcompensation,accordingtothedifferentclass/groupofvictimsandperpetrators.TheTorah/OldTestamentlaysdownthedeathpenaltyformurder,[18]kidnapping,practicingmagic,violationoftheSabbath,blasphemy,andawiderangeofsexualcrimes,althoughevidencesuggeststhatactualexecutionswereexceedinglyrare.[19] AfurtherexamplecomesfromAncientGreece,wheretheAthenianlegalsystemreplacingcustomaryorallawwasfirstwrittendownbyDracoinabout621BC:thedeathpenaltywasappliedforaparticularlywiderangeofcrimes,thoughSolonlaterrepealedDraco'scodeandpublishednewlaws,retainingcapitalpunishmentonlyforintentionalhomicide,andonlywithvictim'sfamilypermission.[20]TheworddraconianderivesfromDraco'slaws.TheRomansalsousedthedeathpenaltyforawiderangeofoffences.[21] AncientGreece TheDeathofSocrates(1787),intheMetropolitanMuseumofArtinNewYorkCity. Protagoras(whosethoughtisreportedbyPlato)criticizestheprincipleofrevenge,becauseoncethedamageisdoneitcannotbecanceledbyanyaction.So,ifthedeathpenaltyistobeimposedbysociety,itisonlytoprotectthelatteragainstthecriminalorforadissuasivepurpose.[22]"TheonlyrightthatProtagorasknowsisthereforehumanright,which,establishedandsanctionedbyasovereigncollectivity,identifiesitselfwithpositiveorthelawinforceofthecity.Infact,itfindsitsguaranteeinthedeathpenaltywhichthreatensallthosewhodonotrespectit."[23][24] Plato,forhispart,sawthedeathpenaltyasameansofpurification,becausecrimesarea"defilement".ThusintheLaws,heconsiderednecessarytheexecutionoftheanimalorthedestructionoftheobjectwhichcausedthedeathofaManbyaccident.Forthemurderers,heconsideredthattheactofhomicideisnotnaturalandisnotfullyconsentedbythecriminal.Homicideisthusadiseaseofthesoul,whichmustbereeducatedasmuchaspossible,and,asalastresort,sentencetodeathifnorehabilitationispossible.[25] AccordingtoAristotle,forwhomfreewillispropertoman,thecitizenisresponsibleforhisacts.Iftherewasacrime,ajudgemustdefinethepenaltyallowingthecrimetobeannulledbycompensatingit.Thisishowpecuniarycompensationappearedforcriminalstheleastrecalcitrantandwhoserehabilitationisdeemedpossible.Butforothers,thedeathpenaltyisnecessaryaccordingtoAristotle.[26] Thisphilosophyaimsontheonehandtoprotectsocietyandontheotherhandtocompensatetocanceltheconsequencesofthecrimecommitted.ItinspiredWesterncriminallawuntilthe17thcentury,atimewhenthefirstreflectionsontheabolitionofthedeathpenaltyappeared.[27] AncientRome InancientRome,theapplicationofthedeathpenaltyagainstRomancitizenswasunusualandconsideredexceptional.Theypreferredalternativesentencesranging,dependingonthecrimeandthecriminal,fromprivateorpublicreprimandtoexile,includingtheconfiscationofhisproperty,ortorture,orevenprison,andasalastresort,death.Ahistoricdebate,followedbyavote,tookplaceintheRomanSenatetodecidethefateofCatiline'sallieswhenhetriedtotakepowerinDecember−63.thenRomanconsul,arguedinfavorofthekillingofconspiratorswithoutjudgmentbydecisionoftheSenate(Senatusconsultumultimum)andwasfollowedbythemajorityofsenators;amongtheminorityvoicesopposedtotheexecution,wemainlycountthatofJuliusCaesar.[28]ItwasquitedifferentforforeignerswhowereconsideredinferiortoRomancitizenshipandespeciallyforslaves,whowereconsideredasmovableproperty. China AlthoughmanyareexecutedinthePeople'sRepublicofChinaeachyearinthepresentday,[29]therewasatimeintheTangdynasty(618–907)whenthedeathpenaltywasabolished.[30]Thiswasintheyear747,enactedbyEmperorXuanzongofTang(r.712–756).WhenabolishingthedeathpenaltyXuanzongorderedhisofficialstorefertothenearestregulationbyanalogywhensentencingthosefoundguiltyofcrimesforwhichtheprescribedpunishmentwasexecution.ThusdependingontheseverityofthecrimeapunishmentofseverescourgingwiththethickrodorofexiletotheremoteLingnanregionmighttaketheplaceofcapitalpunishment.However,thedeathpenaltywasrestoredonly12yearslaterin759inresponsetotheAnLushanRebellion.[31]AtthistimeintheTangdynastyonlytheemperorhadtheauthoritytosentencecriminalstoexecution.UnderXuanzongcapitalpunishmentwasrelativelyinfrequent,withonly24executionsintheyear730and58executionsintheyear736.[30] ThetwomostcommonformsofexecutionintheTangdynastywerestrangulationanddecapitation,whichweretheprescribedmethodsofexecutionfor144and89offencesrespectively.Strangulationwastheprescribedsentenceforlodginganaccusationagainstone'sparentsorgrandparentswithamagistrate,schemingtokidnapapersonandsellthemintoslavery,andopeningacoffinwhiledesecratingatomb.Decapitationwasthemethodofexecutionprescribedformoreseriouscrimessuchastreasonandsedition.Despitethegreatdiscomfortinvolved,mostoftheTangChinesepreferredstrangulationtodecapitation,asaresultofthetraditionalTangChinesebeliefthatthebodyisagiftfromtheparentsandthatitis,therefore,disrespectfultoone'sancestorstodiewithoutreturningone'sbodytothegraveintact. SomefurtherformsofcapitalpunishmentwerepractisedintheTangdynasty,ofwhichthefirsttwothatfollowatleastwereextralegal.[clarificationneeded]Thefirstofthesewasscourgingtodeathwiththethickrod[clarificationneeded]whichwascommonthroughouttheTangdynastyespeciallyincasesofgrosscorruption.Thesecondwastruncation,inwhichtheconvictedpersonwascutintwoatthewaistwithafodderknifeandthenlefttobleedtodeath.[32]AfurtherformofexecutioncalledLingChi(slowslicing),ordeathby/ofathousandcuts,wasusedfromthecloseoftheTangdynasty(around900)toitsabolitionin1905. Whenaministerofthefifthgradeorabovereceivedadeathsentencetheemperormightgranthimaspecialdispensationallowinghimtocommitsuicideinlieuofexecution.Evenwhenthisprivilegewasnotgranted,thelawrequiredthatthecondemnedministerbeprovidedwithfoodandalebyhiskeepersandtransportedtotheexecutiongroundinacartratherthanhavingtowalkthere. NearlyallexecutionsundertheTangdynastytookplaceinpublicasawarningtothepopulation.Theheadsoftheexecutedweredisplayedonpolesorspears.Whenlocalauthoritiesdecapitatedaconvictedcriminal,theheadwasboxedandsenttothecapitalasproofofidentityandthattheexecutionhadtakenplace.[32] MiddleAges ThebreakingwheelwasusedduringtheMiddleAgesandwasstillinuseintothe19thcentury. InmedievalandearlymodernEurope,beforethedevelopmentofmodernprisonsystems,thedeathpenaltywasalsousedasageneralizedformofpunishmentforevenminoroffences.DuringthereignofKingHenryVIIIofEngland,asmanyas72,000peopleareestimatedtohavebeenexecutedinthecountry.[33] InearlymodernEurope,amassivemoralpanicregardingwitchcraftsweptacrossEuropeandlatertheEuropeancoloniesinNorthAmerica.Duringthisperiod,therewerewidespreadclaimsthatmalevolentSatanicwitcheswereoperatingasanorganizedthreattoChristendom.Asaresult,tensofthousandsofwomenwereprosecutedforwitchcraftandexecutedthroughthewitchtrialsoftheearlymodernperiod(betweenthe15thand18thcenturies). TheburningofJakobRohrbach,aleaderofthepeasantsduringtheGermanPeasants'War. Thedeathpenaltyalsotargetedsexualoffencessuchassodomy.IntheearlyhistoryofIslam(7th-11thcenturies),thereisanumberof"purported(butmutuallyinconsistent)reports"(athar)regardingthepunishmentsofsodomyorderedbysomeoftheearlycaliphs.[34][35]AbuBakr,thefirstcaliphoftheRashidunCaliphate,apparentlyrecommendedtopplingawallontheculprit,orelseburninghimalive,[35]whileAliibnAbiTalibissaidtohaveordereddeathbystoningforonesodomiteandhadanotherthrownhead-firstfromthetopofthehighestbuildinginthetown;accordingtoIbnAbbas,thelatterpunishmentmustbefollowedbystoning.[35][36]OthermedievalMuslimleaders,suchastheAbbasidcaliphsinBaghdad(mostnotablyal-Mu'tadid),wereoftencruelintheirpunishments.[37][page needed]InearlymodernEngland,theBuggeryAct1533stipulatedhangingaspunishmentfor"buggery".JamesPrattandJohnSmithwerethelasttwoEnglishmentobeexecutedforsodomyin1835.[38] HistoriansrecognizethatduringtheEarlyMiddleAges,theChristianpopulationslivinginthelandsinvadedbytheArabMuslimarmiesbetweenthe7thand10thcenturiessufferedreligiousdiscrimination,religiouspersecution,religiousviolence,andmartyrdommultipletimesatthehandsofArabMuslimofficialsandrulers.[39][40]AsPeopleoftheBook,ChristiansunderMuslimruleweresubjectedtodhimmistatus(alongwithJews,Samaritans,Gnostics,Mandeans,andZoroastrians),whichwasinferiortothestatusofMuslims.[40][41][42]Christiansandotherreligiousminoritiesthusfacedreligiousdiscriminationandreligiouspersecutioninthattheywerebannedfromproselytising(forChristians,itwasforbiddentoevangelizeorspreadChristianity)inthelandsinvadedbytheArabMuslimsonpainofdeath,theywerebannedfrombearingarms,undertakingcertainprofessions,andwereobligatedtodressdifferentlyinordertodistinguishthemselvesfromArabs.[41]Undersharia,Non-Muslimswereobligatedtopayjizyaandkharajtaxes,[40][41][42]togetherwithperiodicheavyransomlevieduponChristiancommunitiesbyMuslimrulersinordertofundmilitarycampaigns,allofwhichcontributedasignificantproportionofincometotheIslamicstateswhileconverselyreducingmanyChristianstopoverty,andthesefinancialandsocialhardshipsforcedmanyChristianstoconverttoIslam.[41]ChristiansunabletopaythesetaxeswereforcedtosurrendertheirchildrentotheMuslimrulersaspaymentwhowouldsellthemasslavestoMuslimhouseholdswheretheywereforcedtoconverttoIslam.[41]ManyChristianmartyrswereexecutedundertheIslamicdeathpenaltyfordefendingtheirChristianfaiththroughdramaticactsofresistancesuchasrefusingtoconverttoIslam,repudiationoftheIslamicreligionandsubsequentreconversiontoChristianity,andblasphemytowardsMuslimbeliefs.[39] Despitethewideuseofthedeathpenalty,callsforreformwerenotunknown.The12th-centuryJewishlegalscholarMosesMaimonideswrote:"Itisbetterandmoresatisfactorytoacquitathousandguiltypersonsthantoputasingleinnocentmantodeath."Hearguedthatexecutinganaccusedcriminalonanythinglessthanabsolutecertaintywouldleadtoaslipperyslopeofdecreasingburdensofproof,untilwewouldbeconvictingmerely"accordingtothejudge'scaprice".Maimonides'sconcernwasmaintainingpopularrespectforlaw,andhesawerrorsofcommissionasmuchmorethreateningthanerrorsofomission.[43] Enlightenmentphilosophy WhileduringtheMiddleAgestheexpiatoryaspectofthedeathpenaltywastakenintoaccount,thisisnolongerthecaseundertheLumières.Thesedefinetheplaceofmanwithinsocietynolongeraccordingtoadivinerule,butasacontractestablishedatbirthbetweenthecitizenandthesociety,itisthesocialcontract.Fromthatmomenton,capitalpunishmentshouldbeseenasusefultosocietythroughitsdissuasiveeffect,butalsoasameansofprotectionofthelattervis-à-viscriminals.[citationneeded] Modernera AntiportaofDeidelittiedellepene(OnCrimesandPunishments),1766ed. Inthelastseveralcenturies,withtheemergenceofmodernnationstates,justicecametobeincreasinglyassociatedwiththeconceptofnaturalandlegalrights.Theperiodsawanincreaseinstandingpoliceforcesandpermanentpenitentialinstitutions.Rationalchoicetheory,autilitarianapproachtocriminologywhichjustifiespunishmentasaformofdeterrenceasopposedtoretribution,canbetracedbacktoCesareBeccaria,whoseinfluentialtreatiseOnCrimesandPunishments(1764)wasthefirstdetailedanalysisofcapitalpunishmenttodemandtheabolitionofthedeathpenalty.[44]InEnglandJeremyBentham(1748–1832),thefounderofmodernutilitarianism,calledfortheabolitionofthedeathpenalty.[45]Beccaria,andlaterCharlesDickensandKarlMarxnotedtheincidenceofincreasedviolentcriminalityatthetimesandplacesofexecutions.Officialrecognitionofthisphenomenonledtoexecutionsbeingcarriedoutinsideprisons,awayfrompublicview. InEnglandinthe18thcentury,whentherewasnopoliceforce,Parliamentdrasticallyincreasedthenumberofcapitaloffencestomorethan200.Theseweremainlypropertyoffences,forexamplecuttingdownacherrytreeinanorchard.[46]In1820,therewere160,includingcrimessuchasshoplifting,pettytheftorstealingcattle.[47]Theseverityoftheso-calledBloodyCodewasoftentemperedbyjurieswhorefusedtoconvict,orjudges,inthecaseofpettytheft,whoarbitrarilysetthevaluestolenatbelowthestatutorylevelforacapitalcrime.[48] 20thcentury Mexicanexecutionbyfiringsquad,1916 InNaziGermanytherewerethreetypesofcapitalpunishment;hanging,decapitationanddeathbyshooting.[49]Also,modernmilitaryorganisationsemployedcapitalpunishmentasameansofmaintainingmilitarydiscipline.Inthepast,cowardice,absencewithoutleave,desertion,insubordination,shirkingunderenemyfireanddisobeyingorderswereoftencrimespunishablebydeath(seedecimationandrunningthegauntlet).Onemethodofexecution,sincefirearmscameintocommonuse,hasalsobeenfiringsquad,althoughsomecountriesuseexecutionwithasingleshottotheheadorneck. 50PolestriedandsentencedtodeathbyaStandgerichtinretaliationfortheassassinationof1GermanpolicemaninNazi-occupiedPoland,1944 Variousauthoritarianstates—forexamplethosewithFascistorCommunistgovernments—employedthedeathpenaltyasapotentmeansofpoliticaloppression.[citationneeded]AccordingtoRobertConquest,theleadingexpertonJosephStalin'spurges,morethanonemillionSovietcitizenswereexecutedduringtheGreatPurgeof1937–38,almostallbyabullettothebackofthehead.[50][better source needed]MaoZedongpubliclystatedthat"800,000"peoplehadbeenexecutedinChinaduringtheCulturalRevolution(1966–1976).Partlyasaresponsetosuchexcesses,civilrightsorganizationsstartedtoplaceincreasingemphasisontheconceptofhumanrightsandanabolitionofthedeathpenalty.[citationneeded] Contemporaryera Bycontinent,allEuropeanstatesbutonehaveabolishedcapitalpunishment;[note1]manyOceanianstateshaveabolishedit;[note2]moststatesintheAmericashaveabolisheditsuse,[note3]whileafewactivelyretainit;[note4]lessthanhalfofcountriesinAfricaretainit;[note5]andthemajorityofcountriesinAsiaretainit.[note6] Abolitionwasoftenadoptedduetopoliticalchange,aswhencountriesshiftedfromauthoritarianismtodemocracy,orwhenitbecameanentryconditionfortheEU.TheUnitedStatesisanotableexception:somestateshavehadbansoncapitalpunishmentfordecades,theearliestbeingMichiganwhereitwasabolishedin1846,whileotherstatesstillactivelyuseittoday.ThedeathpenaltyintheUnitedStatesremainsacontentiousissuewhichishotlydebated. Inretentionistcountries,thedebateissometimesrevivedwhenamiscarriageofjusticehasoccurredthoughthistendstocauselegislativeeffortstoimprovethejudicialprocessratherthantoabolishthedeathpenalty.Inabolitionistcountries,thedebateissometimesrevivedbyparticularlybrutalmurdersthoughfewcountrieshavebroughtitbackafterabolishingit.However,aspikeinserious,violentcrimes,suchasmurdersorterroristattacks,haspromptedsomecountriestoeffectivelyendthemoratoriumonthedeathpenalty.OnenotableexampleisPakistanwhichinDecember2014liftedasix-yearmoratoriumonexecutionsafterthePeshawarschoolmassacreduringwhich132studentsand9membersofstaffoftheArmyPublicSchoolandDegreeCollegePeshawarwerekilledbyTalibanterrorists.Sincethen,Pakistanhasexecutedover400convicts.[51] In2017twomajorcountries,TurkeyandthePhilippines,sawtheirexecutivesmakingmovestoreinstatethedeathpenalty.[52]Inthesameyear,passageofthelawinthePhilippinesfailedtoobtaintheSenate'sapproval.[53] OnDecember29,2021,aftera20-yearmoratorium,theKazakhstangovernmentenactedthe'OnAmendmentsandAdditionstoCertainLegislativeActsoftheRepublicofKazakhstanontheAbolitionoftheDeathPenalty'signedbyPresidentKassym-JomartTokayevaspartofseriesofOmnibusreformationsoftheKazaklegalsystem'ListeningState'initiative.[54] Historyofabolition Seealso:Useofcapitalpunishmentbycountry§ Abolitionchronology EmperorShomubannedthedeathpenaltyinJapanin724. In724inJapan,thedeathpenaltywasbannedduringthereignofEmperorShōmubuttheabolitiononlylastedafewyears.[55]In818,EmperorSagaabolishedthedeathpenaltyundertheinfluenceofShintoanditlasteduntil1156.[56]InChina,thedeathpenaltywasbannedbyEmperorXuanzongofTangin747,replacingitwithexileorscourging.However,thebanonlylasted12years.[55] InEngland,apublicstatementofoppositionwasincludedinTheTwelveConclusionsoftheLollards,writtenin1395.SirThomasMore'sUtopia,publishedin1516,debatedthebenefitsofthedeathpenaltyindialogueform,comingtonofirmconclusion.Morewashimselfexecutedfortreasonin1535. PeterLeopoldIIabolishedthedeathpenaltythroughoutTuscanyin1786,makingitthefirstnationinmodernhistorytodoso. MorerecentoppositiontothedeathpenaltystemmedfromthebookoftheItalianCesareBeccariaDeiDelittieDellePene("OnCrimesandPunishments"),publishedin1764.Inthisbook,Beccariaaimedtodemonstratenotonlytheinjustice,buteventhefutilityfromthepointofviewofsocialwelfare,oftortureandthedeathpenalty.Influencedbythebook,GrandDukeLeopoldIIofHabsburg,thefutureEmperorofAustria,abolishedthedeathpenaltyinthethen-independentGrandDuchyofTuscany,thefirstpermanentabolitioninmoderntimes.On30November1786,afterhavingdefactoblockedexecutions(thelastwasin1769),Leopoldpromulgatedthereformofthepenalcodethatabolishedthedeathpenaltyandorderedthedestructionofalltheinstrumentsforcapitalexecutioninhisland.In2000,Tuscany'sregionalauthoritiesinstitutedanannualholidayon30Novembertocommemoratetheevent.Theeventiscommemoratedonthisdayby300citiesaroundtheworldcelebratingCitiesforLifeDay.IntheUnitedKingdom,itwasabolishedformurder(leavingonlytreason,piracywithviolence,arsoninroyaldockyardsandanumberofwartimemilitaryoffencesascapitalcrimes)forafive-yearexperimentin1965andpermanentlyin1969,thelastexecutionhavingtakenplacein1964.Itwasabolishedforallpeacetimeoffencesin1998.[57] Inthepost-classicalRepublicofPoljicalifewasensuredasabasicrightinitsPoljicaStatuteof1440.Theshort-livedrevolutionaryRomanRepublicbannedcapitalpunishmentin1849.Venezuelafollowedsuitandabolishedthedeathpenaltyin1863[58]andSanMarinodidsoin1865.ThelastexecutioninSanMarinohadtakenplacein1468.InPortugal,afterlegislativeproposalsin1852and1863,thedeathpenaltywasabolishedin1867.ThelastexecutioninBrazilwas1876;fromthenonallthecondemnationswerecommutedbytheEmperorPedroIIuntilitsabolitionforciviloffencesandmilitaryoffencesinpeacetimein1891.Thepenaltyforcrimescommittedinpeacetimewasthenreinstatedandabolishedagaintwice(1938–1953and1969–1978),butonthoseoccasionsitwasrestrictedtoactsofterrorismorsubversionconsidered"internalwarfare"andallsentenceswerecommutedandnotcarriedout. AbolitionoccurredinCanadain1976(exceptforsomemilitaryoffences,withcompleteabolitionin1998);inFrancein1981;andinAustraliain1973(althoughthestateofWesternAustraliaretainedthepenaltyuntil1984).InSouthAustralia,underthepremiershipofthen-PremierDunstan,theCriminalLawConsolidationAct1935(SA)wasmodifiedsothatthedeathsentencewaschangedtolifeimprisonmentin1976. In1977,theUnitedNationsGeneralAssemblyaffirmedinaformalresolutionthatthroughouttheworld,itisdesirableto"progressivelyrestrictthenumberofoffencesforwhichthedeathpenaltymightbeimposed,withaviewtothedesirabilityofabolishingthispunishment".[59] IntheUnitedStates,Michiganwasthefirststatetobanthedeathpenalty,on18May1846.[60]Thedeathpenaltywasdeclaredunconstitutionalbetween1972and1976basedontheFurmanv.Georgiacase,butthe1976Greggv.Georgiacaseonceagainpermittedthedeathpenaltyundercertaincircumstances.FurtherlimitationswereplacedonthedeathpenaltyinAtkinsv.Virginia(2002;deathpenaltyunconstitutionalforpeoplewithanintellectualdisability)andRoperv.Simmons(2005;deathpenaltyunconstitutionalifdefendantwasunderage18atthetimethecrimewascommitted).IntheUnitedStates,23statesandtheDistrictofColumbiabancapitalpunishment. Manycountrieshaveabolishedcapitalpunishmenteitherinlaworinpractice.SinceWorldWarIItherehasbeenatrendtowardabolishingcapitalpunishment.Capitalpunishmenthasbeencompletelyabolishedby108countries,afurthersevenhavedonesoforalloffencesexceptunderspecialcircumstancesand26morehaveabolisheditinpracticebecausetheyhavenotuseditforatleast10yearsandarebelievedtohaveapolicyorestablishedpracticeagainstcarryingoutexecutions.[61] Contemporaryuse Bycountry Mainarticle:Capitalpunishmentbycountry Mostcountries,includingalmostallFirstWorldnations,haveabolishedcapitalpunishmenteitherinlaworinpractice;notableexceptionsaretheUnitedStates,Japan,Taiwan,andSingapore.Additionally,capitalpunishmentisalsocarriedoutinChina,India,andmostIslamicstates.[62][63][64][65][66][67] SinceWorldWarII,therehasbeenatrendtowardabolishingthedeathpenalty.54countriesretainthedeathpenaltyinactiveuse,108countrieshaveabolishedcapitalpunishmentaltogether,7havedonesoforalloffencesexceptunderspecialcircumstances,and26morehaveabolisheditinpracticebecausetheyhavenotuseditforatleast10yearsandarebelievedtohaveapolicyorestablishedpracticeagainstcarryingoutexecutions.[2] AccordingtoAmnestyInternational,18countriesareknowntohaveperformedexecutionsin2020.[3]Therearecountrieswhichdonotpublishinformationontheuseofcapitalpunishment,mostsignificantlyChinaandNorthKorea.AccordingtoAmnestyInternational,around1,000prisonerswereexecutedin2017.[68]   Abolitionistcountries:108   Abolitionist-in-practicecountries(haveexecutednobodyduringthelast14ormoreyears),andabolitionist-in-lawforallcrimesexceptthosecommittedunderexceptionalcircumstances(suchascrimescommittedinwartime):7   Abolitionist-in-practicecountries(havenotexecutedanyoneduringthepast10yearsormoreandarebelievedtohaveapolicyorestablishedpracticeofnotcarryingoutexecutions):26  Retentionistcountries:54 Numberofabolitionistandretentionistcountriesbyyear  Numberofretentionistcountries  Numberofabolitionistcountries Country Totalexecuted(2021)[69]  Iran 353  Egypt 82  SaudiArabia 64  Syria 37  Somalia 22  Iraq 21  Yemen 17  UnitedStates 11  China 6+  Bangladesh 3  Botswana 3  Japan 3  SouthSudan 1  Vietnam Unknown  NorthKorea Unknown AmapshowingU.S.stateswherethedeathpenaltyisauthorizedforcertaincrimes,evenifnotrecentlyused.Thedeathpenaltyisalsoauthorizedforcertainfederalandmilitarycrimes.  Stateswithavaliddeathpenaltystatute  Stateswithoutthedeathpenalty TheuseofthedeathpenaltyisbecomingincreasinglyrestrainedinsomeretentionistcountriesincludingTaiwanandSingapore.[70]IndonesiacarriedoutnoexecutionsbetweenNovember2008andMarch2013.[71]Singapore,JapanandtheUnitedStatesaretheonlydevelopedcountriesthatareclassifiedbyAmnestyInternationalas'retentionist'(SouthKoreaisclassifiedas'abolitionistinpractice').[72][73]NearlyallretentionistcountriesaresituatedinAsia,AfricaandtheCaribbean.[72]TheonlyretentionistcountryinEuropeisBelarus.Thedeathpenaltywasoverwhelminglypractisedinpoorandauthoritarianstates,whichoftenemployedthedeathpenaltyasatoolofpoliticaloppression.[citationneeded]Duringthe1980s,thedemocratisationofLatinAmericaswelledtheranksofabolitionistcountries.[citationneeded] ThiswassoonfollowedbythefallofCommunisminEurope.ManyofthecountrieswhichrestoreddemocracyaspiredtoentertheEU.TheEUandtheCouncilofEuropebothstrictlyrequirememberstatesnottopractisethedeathpenalty(seeCapitalpunishmentinEurope).PublicsupportforthedeathpenaltyintheEUvaries.[74]Thelastexecutioninamemberstateofthepresent-dayCouncilofEuropetookplacein1997inUkraine.[75][76]Incontrast,therapidindustrialisationinAsiahasseenanincreaseinthenumberofdevelopedcountrieswhicharealsoretentionist.Inthesecountries,thedeathpenaltyretainsstrongpublicsupport,andthematterreceiveslittleattentionfromthegovernmentorthemedia;inChinathereisasmallbutsignificantandgrowingmovementtoabolishthedeathpenaltyaltogether.[77]ThistrendhasbeenfollowedbysomeAfricanandMiddleEasterncountrieswheresupportforthedeathpenaltyremainshigh. Somecountrieshaveresumedpractisingthedeathpenaltyafterhavingpreviouslysuspendedthepracticeforlongperiods.TheUnitedStatessuspendedexecutionsin1972butresumedthemin1976;therewasnoexecutioninIndiabetween1995and2004;andSriLankadeclaredanendtoitsmoratoriumonthedeathpenaltyon20November2004,[78]althoughithasnotyetperformedanyfurtherexecutions.ThePhilippinesre-introducedthedeathpenaltyin1993afterabolishingitin1987,butagainabolisheditin2006.[79] TheUnitedStatesandJapanaretheonlydevelopedcountriestohaverecentlycarriedoutexecutions.TheU.S.federalgovernment,theU.S.military,and27stateshaveavaliddeathpenaltystatute,andover1,400executionshavebeencarriedintheUnitedStatessinceitreinstatedthedeathpenaltyin1976.Japanhas107inmateswithfinalizeddeathsentencesasofDecember 21,2021[update],afterexecutingthreeinmatesincludingYasutakaFujishiro,whowaschargedwithkillingsevenofhisrelativesinKakogawa,Hyōgoprefecture,in2004.[80] ThemostrecentcountrytoabolishthedeathpenaltywasKazakhstanon2January2021afteramoratoriumdatingback2decades.[81][82] AccordingtoanAmnestyInternationalreportreleasedinApril2020,Egyptrankedregionallythirdandgloballyfifthamongthecountriesthatcarriedoutmostexecutionsin2019.Thecountryincreasinglybecameignorantofinternationalhumanrightsconcernsandcriticism.InMarch2021,Egyptexecuted11prisonersinajail,whowereconvictedincasesof"murder,theft,andshooting".[83] AccordingtoAmnestyInternational's2021report,atleast483peoplewereexecutedin2020despitetheCOVID-19pandemic.Thefigureexcludedthecountriesthatclassifydeathpenaltydataasstatesecret.Thetopfiveexecutionersfor2020wereChina,Iran,Egypt,IraqandSaudiArabia.[84] Modern-daypublicopinion Thepublicopiniononthedeathpenaltyvariesconsiderablybycountryandbythecrimeinquestion.CountrieswhereamajorityofpeopleareagainstexecutionincludeNorway,whereonly25%areinfavour.[85]MostFrench,Finns,andItaliansalsoopposethedeathpenalty.[86]A2020Galluppollshowsthat55%ofAmericanssupportthedeathpenaltyforanindividualconvictedofmurder,downfrom60%in2016,64%in2010,65%in2006,and68%in2001.[87][88][89][90]In2020,43%ofItaliansexpressedsupportforthedeathpenalty.[91][92][93] InTaiwan,pollsandresearchhaveconsistentlyshownstrongsupportforthedeathpenaltyat80%.ThisincludesasurveyconductedbytheNationalDevelopmentCouncilofTaiwanin2016,showingthat88%ofTaiwanesepeopledisagreewithabolishingthedeathpenalty.[94][95][96]Itscontinuationofthepracticedrewcriticismfromlocalrightsgroups.[97] ThesupportandsentencingofcapitalpunishmenthasbeengrowinginIndiainthe2010s[98]duetoangeroverseveralrecentbrutalcasesofrape,eventhoughactualexecutionsarecomparativelyrare.[98]WhilesupportforthedeathpenaltyformurderisstillhighinChina,executionshavedroppedprecipitously,with3,000executedin2012versus12,000in2002.[99]ApollinSouthAfrica,wherecapitalpunishmentisabolished,foundthat76%ofmillennialSouthAfricanssupportre-introductionofthedeathpenaltyduetoincreasingincidentsofrapeandmurder.[100][101] A2017pollfoundyoungerMexicansaremorelikelytosupportcapitalpunishmentthanolderones.[102]57%ofBrazilianssupportthedeathpenalty.Theagegroupthatshowsthegreatestsupportforexecutionofthosecondemnedisthe25to34-year-oldcategory,inwhich61%saytheyareinfavor.[103] Juvenileoffenders Seealso:Category:Executedjuvenileoffenders Thedeathpenaltyforjuvenileoffenders(criminalsagedunder18yearsatthetimeoftheircrimealthoughthelegaloraccepteddefinitionofjuvenileoffendermayvaryfromonejurisdictiontoanother)hasbecomeincreasinglyrare.ConsideringtheAgeofMajorityisstillnot18insomecountriesorhasnotbeenclearlydefinedinlaw,since1990tencountrieshaveexecutedoffenderswhowereconsideredjuvenilesatthetimeoftheircrimes:ThePeople'sRepublicofChina(PRC),Bangladesh,DemocraticRepublicofCongo,Iran,Iraq,Japan,Nigeria,Pakistan,SaudiArabia,Sudan,theUnitedStates,andYemen.[104]China,Pakistan,theUnitedStates,YemenandSaudiArabiahavesinceraisedtheminimumageto18.[105][106]AmnestyInternationalhasrecorded61verifiedexecutionssincethen,inseveralcountries,ofbothjuvenilesandadultswhohadbeenconvictedofcommittingtheiroffencesasjuveniles.[107]ThePRCdoesnotallowfortheexecutionofthoseunder18,butchildexecutionshavereportedlytakenplace.[108] MotherCatherineCauchés(center)andhertwodaughtersGuillemineGilbert(left)andPerotineMassey(right)withherinfantsonburningforheresy OneoftheyoungestchildrenevertobeexecutedwastheinfantsonofPerotineMasseyonoraround18July1556.HismotherwasoneoftheGuernseyMartyrswhowasexecutedforheresy,andhisfatherhadpreviouslyfledtheisland.Atlessthanonedayold,hewasorderedtobeburnedbyBailiffHellierGosselin,withtheadviceofpriestsnearbywhosaidtheboyshouldburnduetohavinginheritedmoralstainfromhismother,whohadgivenbirthduringherexecution.[109] Startingfrom1642inColonialAmericauntilthepresentdayintheUnitedStates,anestimated365[110]juvenileoffenderswereexecutedbyvariouscolonialauthoritiesand(aftertheAmericanRevolution)thefederalgovernment.[111]TheU.S.SupremeCourtabolishedcapitalpunishmentforoffendersundertheageof16inThompsonv.Oklahoma(1988),andforalljuvenilesinRoperv.Simmons(2005). InPrussia,childrenundertheageof14wereexemptedfromthedeathpenaltyin1794.[112]CapitalpunishmentwascancelledbytheElectorateofBavariain1751forchildrenundertheageof11[113]andbytheKingdomofBavariain1813forchildrenandyouthunder16years.[114]InPrussia,theexemptionwasextendedtoyouthundertheageof16in1851.[115]Forthefirsttime,alljuvenileswereexcludedforthedeathpenaltybytheNorthGermanConfederationin1871,[116]whichwascontinuedbytheGermanEmpirein1872.[117]InNaziGermany,capitalpunishmentwasreinstatedforjuvenilesbetween16and17yearsin1939.[118]Thiswasbroadenedtochildrenandyouthfromage12to17in1943.[119]ThedeathpenaltyforjuvenileswasabolishedbyWestGermany,alsogenerally,in1949andbyEastGermanyin1952. IntheHereditaryLands,AustrianSilesia,BohemiaandMoraviawithintheHabsburgMonarchy,capitalpunishmentforchildrenundertheageof11wasnolongerforeseenby1770.[120]Thedeathpenaltywas,alsoforjuveniles,nearlyabolishedin1787exceptforemergencyormilitarylaw,whichisunclearinregardofthose.Itwasreintroducedforjuvenilesabove14yearsby1803,[121]andwasraisedbygeneralcriminallawto20yearsin1852[122]andthisexemption[123]andthealikeoneofmilitarylawin1855,[124]whichmayhavebeenupto14yearsinwartime,[125]werealsointroducedintoalloftheAustrianEmpire. IntheHelveticRepublic,thedeathpenaltyforchildrenandyouthundertheageof16wasabolishedin1799[126]yetthecountrywasalreadydissolvedin1803whereasthelawcouldremaininforceifitwasnotreplacedoncantonallevel.InthecantonofBern,alljuvenileswereexemptedfromthedeathpenaltyatleastin1866.[127]InFribourg,capitalpunishmentwasgenerally,includingforjuveniles,abolishedby1849.InTicino,itwasabolishedforyouthandyoungadultsundertheageof20in1816.[128]InZurich,theexclusionfromthedeathpenaltywasextendedforjuvenilesandyoungadultsupto19yearsofageby1835.[129]In1942,thedeathpenaltywasalmostdeletedincriminallaw,aswellforjuveniles,butsince1928persistedinmilitarylawduringwartimeforyouthabove14years.[130]Ifnoearlierchangewasmadeinthegivensubject,by1979juvenilescouldnolongerbesubjecttothedeathpenaltyinmilitarylawduringwartime.[131] Between2005andMay2008,Iran,Pakistan,SaudiArabia,SudanandYemenwerereportedtohaveexecutedchildoffenders,thelargestnumberoccurringinIran.[132] DuringHassanRouhani'stenureaspresidentofIranfrom2013till2021,atleast3,602deathsentenceshavebeencarriedout.Thisincludestheexecutionsof34juvenileoffenders.[133][134] TheUnitedNationsConventionontheRightsoftheChild,whichforbidscapitalpunishmentforjuvenilesunderarticle37(a),hasbeensignedbyallcountriesandsubsequentlyratifiedbyallsignatorieswiththeexceptionoftheUnitedStates(despitetheUSSupremeCourtdecisionsabolishingthepractice).[135]TheUNSub-CommissiononthePromotionandProtectionofHumanRightsmaintainsthatthedeathpenaltyforjuvenileshasbecomecontrarytoajuscogensofcustomaryinternationallaw.AmajorityofcountriesarealsopartytotheU.N.InternationalCovenantonCivilandPoliticalRights(whoseArticle6.5alsostatesthat"Sentenceofdeathshallnotbeimposedforcrimescommittedbypersonsbeloweighteenyearsofage..."). Iran,despiteitsratificationoftheConventionontheRightsoftheChildandInternationalCovenantonCivilandPoliticalRights,wastheworld'slargestexecutionerofjuvenileoffenders,forwhichithasbeenthesubjectofbroadinternationalcondemnation;thecountry'srecordisthefocusoftheStopChildExecutionsCampaign.Buton10February2012,Iran'sparliamentchangedcontroversiallawsrelatingtotheexecutionofjuveniles.Inthenewlegislationtheageof18(solaryear)wouldbeappliedtoaccusedofbothgendersandjuvenileoffendersmustbesentencedpursuanttoaseparatelawspecificallydealingwithjuveniles.[105][106]BasedontheIslamiclawwhichnowseemstohavebeenrevised,girlsattheageof9andboysat15oflunaryear(11daysshorterthanasolaryear)aredeemedfullyresponsiblefortheircrimes.[105]Iranaccountedfortwo-thirdsoftheglobaltotalofsuchexecutions,andcurrently[needsupdate]hasapproximately140peopleconsideredasjuvenilesawaitingexecutionforcrimescommitted(upfrom71in2007).[136][137]ThepastexecutionsofMahmoudAsgari,AyazMarhoniandMakwanMoloudzadehbecamethefocusofIran'schildcapitalpunishmentpolicyandthejudicialsystemthathandsdownsuchsentences.[138][139] SaudiArabiaalsoexecutescriminalswhowereminorsatthetimeoftheoffence.[140][141]In2013,SaudiArabiawasthecenterofaninternationalcontroversyafteritexecutedRizanaNafeek,aSriLankandomesticworker,whowasbelievedtohavebeen17yearsoldatthetimeofthecrime.[142]SaudiArabiabannedexecutionforminors,exceptforterrorismcases,inApril2020.[143] JapanhasnotexecutedjuvenilecriminalsafterAugust1997,whentheyexecutedNorioNagayama,aspreekillerwhohadbeenconvictedofshootingfourpeopledeadinthelate1960s.Nagayama'scasecreatedtheeponymouslynamedNagayamastandards,whichtakeintoaccountfactorssuchasthenumberofvictims,brutalityandsocialimpactofthecrimes.Thestandardshavebeenusedindeterminingwhethertoapplythedeathsentenceinmurdercases.TeruhikoSeki,convictedofmurderingfourfamilymembersincludinga4-year-olddaughterandrapinga15-year-olddaughterofafamilyin1992,becamethesecondinmatetobehangedforacrimecommittedasaminorinthefirstsuchexecutionin20yearsafterNagayamaon19December2017.[144]TakayukiOtsuki,whowasconvictedofrapingandstranglinga23-year-oldwomanandsubsequentlystranglingher11-month-olddaughtertodeathon14April1999,whenhewas18,isanotherinmatesentencedtodeath,andhisrequestforretrialhasbeenrejectedbytheSupremeCourtofJapan.[145] ThereisevidencethatchildexecutionsaretakingplaceinthepartsofSomaliacontrolledbytheIslamicCourtsUnion(ICU).InOctober2008,agirl,AishaIbrahimDhuhulowwasburieduptoherneckatafootballstadium,thenstonedtodeathinfrontofmorethan1,000people.Somalia'sestablishedTransitionalFederalGovernmentannouncedinNovember2009(reiteratedin2013)[146]thatitplanstoratifytheConventionontheRightsoftheChild.ThismovewaslaudedbyUNICEFasawelcomeattempttosecurechildren'srightsinthecountry.[147] Methods Mainarticle:Listofmethodsofcapitalpunishment TheRedGuardprisonersarebeingexecutedbytheWhitesinVarkaus,NorthSavonia,duringthe1918FinnishCivilWar. Thefollowingmethodsofexecutionhavebeenusedbyvariouscountries:[148][149][150][151][152] Hanging(Afghanistan,Iran,Iraq,Japan,SouthKorea,Malaysia,Nigeria,Sudan,Pakistan,PalestinianNationalAuthority,Israel,Yemen,Egypt,India,Myanmar,Singapore,SriLanka,Syria,UAE,Zimbabwe,Malawi,Liberia) Shooting(thePeople'sRepublicofChina,RepublicofChina,Vietnam,Belarus,Ethiopia,Nigeria,Somalia,NorthKorea,Indonesia,UAE,SaudiArabia,Bahrain,Qatar,Yemen,andintheUSstatesofOklahomaandUtah). Lethalinjection(UnitedStates,Guatemala,Thailand,thePeople'sRepublicofChina,Vietnam) Beheading(SaudiArabia) Stoning(Nigeria,Sudan) Electrocutionandgasinhalation(someU.S.states,butonlyiftheprisonerrequestsitoriflethalinjectionisunavailable) Inertgasasphyxiation(SomeU.Sstates,Oklahoma,Mississippi,Alabama) Publicexecution Mainarticle:Publicexecution Apublicexecutionisaformofcapitalpunishmentwhich"membersofthegeneralpublicmayvoluntarilyattend".Thisdefinitionexcludesthepresenceofasmallnumberofwitnessesrandomlyselectedtoassureexecutiveaccountability.[153]Whiletodaythegreatmajorityoftheworldconsiderspublicexecutionstobedistastefulandmostcountrieshaveoutlawedthepractice,throughoutmuchofhistoryexecutionswereperformedpubliclyasameansforthestatetodemonstrate"itspowerbeforethosewhofellunderitsjurisdictionbetheycriminals,enemies,orpoliticalopponents".Additionally,itaffordedthepublicachancetowitness"whatwasconsideredagreatspectacle".[154] Socialhistoriansnotethatbeginninginthe20thcenturyintheU.S.andwesternEuropedeathingeneralbecameincreasinglyshieldedfrompublicview,occurringmoreandmorebehindthecloseddoorsofthehospital.[155]Executionswerelikewisemovedbehindthewallsofthepenitentiary.[155]Thelastformalpublicexecutionsoccurredin1868inBritain,in1936intheU.S.andin1939inFrance.[155] AccordingtoAmnestyInternational,in2012,"publicexecutionswereknowntohavebeencarriedoutinIran,NorthKorea,SaudiArabiaandSomalia".[156]Therehavebeenreportsofpublicexecutionscarriedoutbystateandnon-stateactorsinHamas-controlledGaza,Syria,Iraq,Afghanistan,andYemen.[157][158][159]ExecutionswhichcanbeclassifiedaspublicwerealsocarriedoutintheU.S.statesofFloridaandUtahasof1992[update].[153] Capitalcrime "Capitalcrimes"redirectshere.Forthenovel,seeCapitalCrimes. Crimesagainsthumanity Crimesagainsthumanitysuchasgenocideareusuallypunishablebydeathincountriesretainingcapitalpunishment.[citationneeded]DeathsentencesforsuchcrimeswerehandeddownandcarriedoutduringtheNurembergTrialsin1946andtheTokyoTrialsin1948,butthecurrentInternationalCriminalCourtdoesnotusecapitalpunishment.ThemaximumpenaltyavailabletotheInternationalCriminalCourtislifeimprisonment.[160] Murder Intentionalhomicideispunishablebydeathinmostcountriesretainingcapitalpunishment,butgenerallyprovideditinvolvesanaggravatingfactorrequiredbystatuteorjudicialprecedents.[citationneeded]SomecountrieslikeSingaporeandMalaysiamadethedeathpenaltymandatoryformurder,thoughSingaporelaterchangeditslawssince2013toreservethemandatorydeathsentenceforintentionalmurderwhileprovidinganalternativesentenceoflifeimprisonmentwith/withoutcaningformurderwithnointentiontocausedeath,whichallowedsomeconvictedmurderersondeathrowinSingapore(includingKhoJabing)toapplyforthereductionoftheirdeathsentencesafterthecourtsinSingaporeconfirmedthattheycommittedmurderwithouttheintentiontokillandthuseligibleforre-sentencingunderthenewdeathpenaltylawsinSingapore.[citationneeded]Malaysiaconsideredabolishingthedeathpenalty,butinsteadabolishedmandatorydeathsentences;anydeathsentenceisnowpassedatthejudge'sdiscretion.[161] Drugtrafficking Mainarticle:Capitalpunishmentfordrugtrafficking AsignattheTaiwanTaoyuanInternationalAirportwarnsarrivingtravelersthatdrugtraffickingisacapitalcrimeintheRepublicofChina(phototakenin2005) In2018,atleast35countriesretainedthedeathpenaltyfordrugtrafficking,drugdealing,drugpossessionandrelatedoffences.[162]Peopleareregularlysentencedtodeathandexecutedfordrug-relatedoffencesinChina,Indonesia,Iran,Malaysia,SaudiArabia,SingaporeandVietnam.[162]Othercountriesmayretainthedeathpenaltyforsymbolicpurposes.[162] ThedeathpenaltyismandatedfordrugtraffickinginSingaporeandMalaysia,thoughsince2013,Singaporeruledthatthosewhowerecertifiedtobesufferingfromdiminishedresponsibility(e.g.Majordepressivedisorder)oractingasdrugcouriersandhadassistedtheauthoritiesintacklingdrug-relatedactivities,willbesentencedtolifeimprisonmentinsteadofdeath,withtheoffenderliabletoatleast15strokesofthecaneifhewasnotsentencedtodeathandwassimultaneouslysentencedtocaningaswell.[citationneeded]NotabledrugcouriersincludeYongVuiKong,whosedeathsentencewasreplacedwithalifesentenceand15strokesofthecaneinNovember2013.[citationneeded] Otheroffences Seealso:Capitalpunishmentfornon-violentoffensesandCapitalpunishmentbycountry Othercrimesthatarepunishablebydeathinsomecountriesinclude: Useoffirearms[citationneeded] Terrorism Treason(acapitalcrimeinmostcountriesthatretaincapitalpunishment) Espionage Crimesagainstthestate,suchasattemptingtooverthrowgovernment(mostcountrieswiththedeathpenalty) Politicalprotests(SaudiArabia)[163] Rape(China,India,Pakistan,Bangladesh,Iran,SaudiArabia,UAE,Qatar,Brunei,etc.) Economiccrimes(China,Iran) Humantrafficking(China) Corruption(China,Iran) Kidnapping(China,Bangladesh,theUSstatesofGeorgia[164]andIdaho,[165]etc.) Separatism(China) Unlawfulsexualbehaviour(SaudiArabia,Iran,UAE,Qatar,Brunei,Nigeria,etc.) ReligiousHududoffencessuchasapostasy(SaudiArabia,Iran,Afghanistanetc.) Blasphemy(SaudiArabia,Iran,Pakistan,certainstatesinNigeria) Moharebeh(Iran) Drinkingalcohol(Iran) Witchcraftandsorcery(SaudiArabia)[166][167] Arson(Algeria,Tunisia,Mali,Mauritania,etc.) Hirabah/brigandage/armedand/oraggravatedrobbery(Algeria,SaudiArabia,Iran,Kenya,Zambia,Ghana,Ethiopia,theUSstateofGeorgia[168]etc.)[169] Controversyanddebate Seealso:CapitalpunishmentdebateintheUnitedStates Deathpenaltyopponentsregardthedeathpenaltyasinhumane[170]andcriticizeitforitsirreversibility.[171]Theyarguealsothatcapitalpunishmentlacksdeterrenteffect,[172][173][174]discriminatesagainstminoritiesandthepoor,andthatitencouragesa"cultureofviolence".[175]Therearemanyorganizationsworldwide,suchasAmnestyInternational,[176]andcountry-specific,suchastheAmericanCivilLibertiesUnion(ACLU),thathaveabolitionofthedeathpenaltyasitsmainpurpose.[177][178] Advocatesofthedeathpenaltyarguethatitdeterscrime,[179][180]isagoodtoolforpoliceandprosecutorsinpleabargaining,[181]makessurethatconvictedcriminalsdonotoffendagain,andthatitensuresjusticeforcrimessuchashomicide,whereotherpenaltieswillnotinflictthedesiredretributiondemandedbythecrimeitself.Capitalpunishmentfornon-lethalcrimesisusuallyconsiderablymorecontroversial,andabolishedinmanyofthecountriesthatretainit.[182][183] Retribution ExecutionofawarcriminalinGermanyin1946 Supportersofthedeathpenaltyarguedthatdeathpenaltyismorallyjustifiedwhenappliedinmurderespeciallywithaggravatingelementssuchasformurderofpoliceofficers,childmurder,torturemurder,multiplehomicideandmasskillingsuchasterrorism,massacreandgenocide.ThisargumentisstronglydefendedbyNewYorkLawSchool'sProfessorRobertBlecker,[184]whosaysthatthepunishmentmustbepainfulinproportiontothecrime.Eighteenth-centuryphilosopherImmanuelKantdefendedamoreextremeposition,accordingtowhicheverymurdererdeservestodieonthegroundsthatlossoflifeisincomparabletoanypenaltythatallowsthemtoremainalive,includinglifeimprisonment.[185] Someabolitionistsarguethatretributionissimplyrevengeandcannotbecondoned.Otherswhileacceptingretributionasanelementofcriminaljusticenonethelessarguethatlifewithoutparoleisasufficientsubstitute.Itisalsoarguedthatthepunishingofakillingwithanotherdeathisarelativelyunusualpunishmentforaviolentact,becauseingeneralviolentcrimesarenotpunishedbysubjectingtheperpetratortoasimilaract(e.g.rapistsare,typically,notpunishedbycorporalpunishment,althoughitmaybeinflictedinSingapore,forexample).[186] Humanrights Abolitionistsbelievecapitalpunishmentistheworstviolationofhumanrights,becausetherighttolifeisthemostimportant,andcapitalpunishmentviolatesitwithoutnecessityandinflictstothecondemnedapsychologicaltorture.Humanrightsactivistsopposethedeathpenalty,callingit"cruel,inhumananddegradingpunishment".AmnestyInternationalconsidersittobe"theultimateirreversibledenialofHumanRights".[187]AlbertCamuswroteina1956bookcalledReflectionsontheGuillotine,Resistance,Rebellion&Death: Anexecutionisnotsimplydeath.Itisjustasdifferentfromtheprivationoflifeasaconcentrationcampisfromprison.[...]Fortheretobeanequivalency,thedeathpenaltywouldhavetopunishacriminalwhohadwarnedhisvictimofthedateatwhichhewouldinflictahorribledeathonhimandwho,fromthatmomentonward,hadconfinedhimathismercyformonths.Suchamonsterisnotencounteredinprivatelife.[188] IntheclassicdoctrineofnaturalrightsasexpoundedbyforinstanceLockeandBlackstone,ontheotherhand,itisanimportantideathattherighttolifecanbeforfeited,asmostotherrightscanbegivendueprocessisobserved,suchastherighttopropertyandtherighttofreedom,includingprovisionally,inanticipationofanactualverdict.[189]AsJohnStuartMillexplainedinaspeechgiveninParliamentagainstanamendmenttoabolishcapitalpunishmentformurderin1868: Andwemayimaginesomebodyaskinghowwecanteachpeoplenottoinflictsufferingbyourselvesinflictingit?ButtothisIshouldanswer–allofuswouldanswer–thattodeterbysufferingfrominflictingsufferingisnotonlypossible,buttheverypurposeofpenaljustice.Doesfiningacriminalshowwantofrespectforproperty,orimprisoninghim,forpersonalfreedom?Justasunreasonableisittothinkthattotakethelifeofamanwhohastakenthatofanotheristoshowwantofregardforhumanlife.Weshow,onthecontrary,mostemphaticallyourregardforit,bytheadoptionofarulethathewhoviolatesthatrightinanotherforfeitsitforhimself,andthatwhilenoothercrimethathecancommitdepriveshimofhisrighttolive,thisshall.[190] Non-painfulexecution Furtherinformation:Cruelandunusualpunishment AgurneyatSanQuentinStatePrisoninCaliforniaformerlyusedforexecutionsbylethalinjection Trendsinmostoftheworldhavelongbeentomovetoprivateandlesspainfulexecutions.Francedevelopedtheguillotineforthisreasoninthefinalyearsofthe18thcentury,whileBritainbannedhanging,drawing,andquarteringintheearly19thcentury.Hangingbyturningthevictimoffaladderorbykickingastoolorabucket,whichcausesdeathbysuffocation,wasreplacedbylongdrop"hanging"wherethesubjectisdroppedalongerdistancetodislocatetheneckandseverthespinalcord.Mozaffarad-DinShahQajar,ShahofPersia(1896–1907)introducedthroat-cuttingandblowingfromagun(close-rangecannonfire)asquickandrelativelypainlessalternativestomoretorturousmethodsofexecutionsusedatthattime.[191]IntheUnitedStates,electrocutionandgasinhalationwereintroducedasmorehumanealternativestohanging,buthavebeenalmostentirelysupersededbylethalinjection.Asmallnumberofcountries,forexampleIranandSaudiArabia,stillemployslowhangingmethods,decapitation,andstoning. AstudyofexecutionscarriedoutintheUnitedStatesbetween1977and2001indicatedthatatleast34ofthe749executions,or4.5%,involved"unanticipatedproblemsordelaysthatcaused,atleastarguably,unnecessaryagonyfortheprisonerorthatreflectgrossincompetenceoftheexecutioner".Therateofthese"botchedexecutions"remainedsteadyovertheperiodofthestudy.[192]AseparatestudypublishedinTheLancetin2005foundthatin43%ofcasesoflethalinjection,thebloodlevelofhypnoticswasinsufficienttoguaranteeunconsciousness.[193]However,theU.S.SupremeCourtruledin2008(Bazev.Rees)andagainin2015(Glossipv.Gross)thatlethalinjectiondoesnotconstitutecruelandunusualpunishment.[194]InBucklewv.Precythe,themajorityverdict–writtenbyJudgeNeilGorsuch–furtheraffirmedthisprinciple,statingthatwhilethebanoncruelandunusualpunishmentaffirmativelybanspenaltiesthatdeliberatelyinflictpainanddegradation,itdoesinnosenselimitthepossibleinflictionofpainintheexecutionofacapitalverdict.[195] Wrongfulexecution Mainarticle:Wrongfulexecution CapitalpunishmentwasabolishedintheUnitedKingdominpartbecauseofthecaseofTimothyEvans,whowasexecutedin1950afterbeingwrongfullyconvictedoftwomurdersthathadinfactbeencommittedbyhislandlord,JohnChristie.Thecasewasconsideredvitalinbolsteringopposition,whichlimitedthescopeofthepenaltyin1957andabolisheditcompletely,formurder,in1965. Itisfrequentlyarguedthatcapitalpunishmentleadstomiscarriageofjusticethroughthewrongfulexecutionofinnocentpersons.[196]Manypeoplehavebeenproclaimedinnocentvictimsofthedeathpenalty.[197][198][199] Somehaveclaimedthatasmanyas39executionshavebeencarriedoutinthefaceofcompellingevidenceofinnocenceorseriousdoubtaboutguiltintheUSfrom1992through2004.NewlyavailableDNAevidencepreventedthependingexecutionofmorethan15deathrowinmatesduringthesameperiodintheUS,[200]butDNAevidenceisonlyavailableinafractionofcapitalcases.[201]Asof2017[update],159prisonersondeathrowhavebeenexoneratedbyDNAorotherevidence,whichisseenasanindicationthatinnocentprisonershavealmostcertainlybeenexecuted.[202][203]TheNationalCoalitionto AbolishtheDeathPenaltyclaimsthatbetween1976and2015,1,414prisonersintheUnitedStateshavebeenexecutedwhile156sentencedtodeathhavehadtheirdeathsentencesvacated.[204]Itisimpossibletoassesshowmanyhavebeenwronglyexecuted,sincecourtsdonotgenerallyinvestigatetheinnocenceofadeaddefendant,anddefenseattorneystendtoconcentratetheireffortsonclientswhoselivescanstillbesaved;however,thereisstrongevidenceofinnocenceinmanycases.[205] Improperproceduremayalsoresultinunfairexecutions.Forexample,AmnestyInternationalarguesthatinSingapore"theMisuseofDrugsActcontainsaseriesofpresumptionswhichshifttheburdenofprooffromtheprosecutiontotheaccused.Thisconflictswiththeuniversallyguaranteedrighttobepresumedinnocentuntilprovenguilty".[206]Singapore'sMisuseofDrugsActpresumesoneisguiltyofpossessionofdrugsif,asexamples,oneisfoundtobepresentorescapingfromalocation"provedorpresumedtobeusedforthepurposeofsmokingoradministeringacontrolleddrug",ifoneisinpossessionofakeytoapremiseswheredrugsarepresent,ifoneisinthecompanyofanotherpersonfoundtobeinpossessionofillegaldrugs,orifonetestspositiveafterbeinggivenamandatoryurinedrugscreening.Urinedrugscreeningscanbegivenatthediscretionofpolice,withoutrequiringasearchwarrant.Theonusisontheaccusedinalloftheabovesituationstoprovethattheywerenotinpossessionoforconsumedillegaldrugs.[207] Volunteers Mainarticle:Volunteer(capitalpunishment) Someprisonershavevolunteeredorattemptedtoexpeditecapitalpunishment,oftenbywaivingallappeals.Prisonershavemaderequestsorcommittedfurthercrimesinprisonaswell.IntheUnitedStates,executionvolunteersconstituteapproximately11%ofprisonersondeathrow.Volunteersoftenbypasslegalprocedureswhicharedesignedtodesignatethedeathpenaltyforthe"worstoftheworst"offenders.Opponentsofexecutionvolunteeringcitedtheprevalenceofmentalillnessamongvolunteerscomparingittosuicide.Executionvolunteershavereceivedconsiderablylessattentionandeffortatlegalreformthanthosewhowereexoneratedafterexecution.[208] Racial,ethnicandsocialclassbias Opponentsofthedeathpenaltyarguethatthispunishmentisbeingusedmoreoftenagainstperpetratorsfromracialandethnicminoritiesandfromlowersocioeconomicbackgrounds,thanagainstthosecriminalswhocomefromaprivilegedbackground;andthatthebackgroundofthevictimalsoinfluencestheoutcome.[209][210][211]ResearchershaveshownthatwhiteAmericansaremorelikelytosupportthedeathpenaltywhentoldthatitismostlyappliedtoblackAmericans,[212]andthatmorestereotypicallyblack-lookingordarkskinneddefendantsaremorelikelytobesentencedtodeathifthecaseinvolvesawhitevictim.[213]However,astudypublishedin2018failedtoreplicatethefindingsofearlierstudiesthathadconcludedthatwhiteAmericansaremorelikelytosupportthedeathpenaltyifinformedthatitislargelyappliedtoblackAmericans;accordingtotheauthors,theirfindings"mayresultfromchangessince2001intheeffectsofracialstimulionwhiteattitudesaboutthedeathpenaltyortheirwillingnesstoexpressthoseattitudesinasurveycontext."[214] InAlabamain2019,adeathrowinmatenamedDominequeRaywasdeniedhisimamintheroomduringhisexecution,insteadonlyofferedaChristianchaplain.[215]Afterfilingacomplaint,afederalcourtofappealsruled5–4againstRay'srequest.Themajoritycitedthe"last-minute"natureoftherequest,andthedissentstatedthatthetreatmentwentagainstthecoreprincipleofdenominationalneutrality.[215] InJuly2019,twoShiitemen,AliHakimal-Arab,25,andAhmadal-Malali,24,wereexecutedinBahrain,despitetheprotestsfromtheUnitedNationsandrightsgroup.AmnestyInternationalstatedthattheexecutionswerebeingcarriedoutonconfessionsof"terrorismcrimes"thatwereobtainedthroughtorture.[216] Internationalviews Same-sexintercourseillegal:  Deathpenaltyforhomosexuality  Deathpenaltyinlegislation,butnotapplied TheUnitedNationsintroducedaresolutionduringtheGeneralAssembly's62ndsessionsin2007callingforauniversalban.[217][218]TheapprovalofadraftresolutionbytheAssembly'sthirdcommittee,whichdealswithhumanrightsissues,voted99to52,with33abstentions,infavouroftheresolutionon15November2007andwasputtoavoteintheAssemblyon18December.[219][220][221] Againin2008,alargemajorityofstatesfromallregionsadopted,on20NovemberintheUNGeneralAssembly(ThirdCommittee),asecondresolutioncallingforamoratoriumontheuseofthedeathpenalty;105countriesvotedinfavourofthedraftresolution,48votedagainstand31abstained. Arangeofamendmentsproposedbyasmallminorityofpro-deathpenaltycountrieswereoverwhelminglydefeated.Ithadin2007passedanon-bindingresolution(by104to54,with29abstentions)byaskingitsmemberstatesfor"amoratoriumonexecutionswithaviewtoabolishingthedeathpenalty".[222] Article2oftheCharterofFundamentalRightsoftheEuropeanUnionaffirmstheprohibitiononcapitalpunishmentintheEU Anumberofregionalconventionsprohibitthedeathpenalty,mostnotably,theSixthProtocol(abolitionintimeofpeace)andthe13thProtocol(abolitioninallcircumstances)totheEuropeanConventiononHumanRights.ThesameisalsostatedundertheSecondProtocolintheAmericanConventiononHumanRights,which,however,hasnotbeenratifiedbyallcountriesintheAmericas,mostnotablyCanada[223]andtheUnitedStates.Mostrelevantoperativeinternationaltreatiesdonotrequireitsprohibitionforcasesofseriouscrime,mostnotably,theInternationalCovenantonCivilandPoliticalRights.Thisinsteadhas,incommonwithseveralothertreaties,anoptionalprotocolprohibitingcapitalpunishmentandpromotingitswiderabolition.[224] Severalinternationalorganizationshavemadetheabolitionofthedeathpenalty(duringthetimeofpeace)arequirementofmembership,mostnotablytheEUandtheCouncilofEurope.TheEUandtheCouncilofEuropearewillingtoacceptamoratoriumasaninterimmeasure.Thus,whileRussiaisamemberoftheCouncilofEurope,andthedeathpenaltyremainscodifiedinitslaw,ithasnotmadeuseofitsincebecomingamemberofthecouncil–Russiahasnotexecutedanyonesince1996.WiththeexceptionofRussia(abolitionistinpractice)andBelarus(retentionist),allEuropeancountriesareclassifiedasabolitionist.[72] Latviaabolisheddejurethedeathpenaltyforwarcrimesin2012,becomingthelastEUmembertodoso.[225] TheProtocolno.13callsfortheabolitionofthedeathpenaltyinallcircumstances(includingforwarcrimes).ThemajorityofEuropeancountrieshavesignedandratifiedit.SomeEuropeancountrieshavenotdonethis,butallofthemexceptBelarushavenowabolishedthedeathpenaltyinallcircumstances(dejure,andRussiadefacto).Polandisthemostrecentcountrytoratifytheprotocol,on28August2013.[226] SignatoriestotheSecondOptionalProtocoltotheICCPR:partiesindarkgreen,signatoriesinlightgreen,non-membersingrey Protocolno.6whichprohibitsthedeathpenaltyduringpeacetimehasbeenratifiedbyallmembersoftheEuropeanCouncil,exceptRussia(whichhassigned,butnotratified). Therearealsootherinternationalabolitionistinstruments,suchastheSecondOptionalProtocoltotheInternationalCovenantonCivilandPoliticalRights,whichhas81parties;[227]andtheProtocoltotheAmericanConventiononHumanRightstoAbolishtheDeathPenalty(fortheAmericas;ratifiedby13states).[228] InTurkey,over500peopleweresentencedtodeathafterthe1980Turkishcoupd'état.About50ofthemwereexecuted,thelastone25October1984.ThentherewasadefactomoratoriumonthedeathpenaltyinTurkey.AsamovetowardsEUmembership,Turkeymadesomelegalchanges.ThedeathpenaltywasremovedfrompeacetimelawbytheNationalAssemblyinAugust2002,andinMay2004Turkeyamendeditsconstitutiontoremovecapitalpunishmentinallcircumstances.ItratifiedProtocolno.13totheEuropeanConventiononHumanRightsinFebruary2006.[citationneeded]Asaresult,Europeisacontinentfreeofthedeathpenaltyinpractice,allstatesbutRussia,whichhasenteredamoratorium,havingratifiedtheSixthProtocoltotheEuropeanConventiononHumanRights,withthesoleexceptionofBelarus,whichisnotamemberoftheCouncilofEurope.[citationneeded]TheParliamentaryAssemblyoftheCouncilofEuropehasbeenlobbyingforCouncilofEuropeobserverstateswhopractisethedeathpenalty,theU.S.andJapan,toabolishitorlosetheirobserverstatus.InadditiontobanningcapitalpunishmentforEUmemberstates,theEUhasalsobanneddetaineetransfersincaseswherethereceivingpartymayseekthedeathpenalty.[citationneeded] Sub-SaharanAfricancountriesthathaverecentlyabolishedthedeathpenaltyincludeBurundi,whichabolishedthedeathpenaltyforallcrimesin2009,[229]andGabonwhichdidthesamein2010.[230]On5July2012,BeninbecamepartoftheSecondOptionalProtocoltotheInternationalCovenantonCivilandPoliticalRights(ICCPR),whichprohibitstheuseofthedeathpenalty.[231] ThenewlycreatedSouthSudanisamongthe111UNmemberstatesthatsupportedtheresolutionpassedbytheUnitedNationsGeneralAssemblythatcalledfortheremovalofthedeathpenalty,thereforeaffirmingitsoppositiontothepractice.SouthSudan,however,hasnotyetabolishedthedeathpenaltyandstatedthatitmustfirstamenditsConstitution,anduntilthathappensitwillcontinuetousethedeathpenalty.[232] Amongnon-governmentalorganizations(NGOs),AmnestyInternationalandHumanRightsWatcharenotedfortheiroppositiontocapitalpunishment.[233][234]AnumberofsuchNGOs,aswellastradeunions,localcouncils,andbarassociations,formedaWorldCoalitionAgainsttheDeathPenaltyin2002.[235] AnopenletterledbyDanishMemberoftheEuropeanParliament,KarenMelchiorwassenttotheEuropeanCommissionaheadofthe26January2021meetingoftheBahrainiMinisterofForeignAffairs,AbdullatifbinRashidAlZayaniwiththemembersoftheEuropeanUnionforthesigningofaCooperationAgreement.Atotalof16MEPsundersignedtheletterexpressingtheirgraveconcerntowardstheextendedabuseofhumanrightsinBahrainfollowingthearbitraryarrestanddetentionofactivistsandcriticsofthegovernment.TheattendeesofthemeetingwererequestedtodemandfromtheirBahrainicounterpartstotakeintoconsiderationtheconcernsraisedbytheMEPs,particularlyforthereleaseofAbdulhadiAl-KhawajaandSheikhMohammedHabibAl-Muqdad,thetwoEuropean-Bahrainidualcitizensondeathrow.[236][237] Religiousviews Mainarticle:Religionandcapitalpunishment Theworld'smajorfaithshavedifferingviewsdependingonthereligion,denomination,sectand/ortheindividualadherent.Asanexample,theworld'slargestChristiandenomination,Catholicism,opposescapitalpunishmentinallcases.BoththeBaha'iandIslamicfaithssupportcapitalpunishment.[238][239] Seealso Deathincustody Executionchamber Executioner Judicialdissolutionaka"TheCorporateDeathPenalty" Mandatorydeathsentence WorldCoalitionAgainsttheDeathPenalty UNmoratoriumonthedeathpenalty TheDeathPenalty:OpposingViewpoints(book) Listofmethodsofcapitalpunishment Listofbotchedexecutions Revengedynamics Shameculture Guilt-Shame-Fearspectrumofcultures Lastmeal ListofwrongfulconvictionsintheUnitedStates CapitalpunishmentinJudaism Notesandreferences Notes Explanatorynotes ^Belarus ^includingAustraliaandNewZealand. ^MostLatinAmericanstatesandCanadahavecompletelyabolishedcapitalpunishment,whileafewsuchasBrazilandGuatemalaallowforitonlyinexceptionalsituations(suchastreasoncommittedduringwartime). ^TheUnitedStatesandsomeCaribbeancountries. ^ForexampleSouthAfricaabolishedthedeathpenaltyin1995,whileBotswanaandZambiaretainit. ^Forexample,China,JapanandIndiaactivelyretainit. 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Davis,DavidBrion."ThemovementtoabolishcapitalpunishmentinAmerica,1787–1861."AmericanHistoricalReview63.1(1957):23–46.online Gaie,JosephB.R(2004).Theethicsofmedicalinvolvementincapitalpunishment :aphilosophicaldiscussion.KluwerAcademic.ISBN 978-1-4020-1764-3. Hammel,A.EndingtheDeathPenalty:TheEuropeanExperienceinGlobalPerspective(2014). Hood,Roger(2001)."CapitalPunishment".Punishment&Society.3(3):331–354.doi:10.1177/1462474501003003001.S2CID 143875533. Johnson,DavidT.;Zimring,FranklinE.(2009).TheNextFrontier:NationalDevelopment,PoliticalChange,andtheDeathPenaltyinAsia.OxfordUniversityPress.ISBN 978-0-19-533740-2. McCafferty,JamesA(2010).CapitalPunishment.AldineTransaction.ISBN 978-0-202-36328-8. Mandery,EvanJ(2005).Capitalpunishment:abalancedexamination.JonesandBartlettPublishers.ISBN 978-0-7637-3308-7. Marzilli,Alan(2008).CapitalPunishment–Point-counterpoint(2nd ed.).ChelseaHouse.ISBN 978-0-7910-9796-0. O'Brien,Doireann."InvestigatingtheOriginofEuropeandAmerica'sDivergingPositionsontheIssueofCapitalPunishment."SocialandPoliticalReview(2018):98+.onlineArchived21December2019attheWaybackMachine Rakoff,JedS.,"TheLastofHisKind"(reviewofJohnPaulStevens,TheMakingofaJustice:ReflectionsonMyFirst94Years,Little,Brown,549pp.),TheNewYorkReviewofBooks,vol.LXVI,no.14(26September2019),pp. 20,22,24.JohnPaulStevens,"athrowbacktothepostwarliberalRepublican[U.S.SupremeCourt]appointees",questionedthevalidityof"thedoctrineofsovereignimmunity,whichholdsthatyoucannotsueanystateorfederalgovernmentagency,oranyofitsofficersoremployees,foranywrongtheymayhavecommittedagainstyou,unlessthestateorfederalgovernmentconsentstobeingsued"(p. 20);theproprietyof"theincreasingresistanceoftheU.S.SupremeCourttomostmeaningfulformsofguncontrol"(p. 22);and"theconstitutionalityofthedeathpenalty...becauseofincontrovertibleevidencethatinnocentpeoplehavebeensentencedtodeath."(pp. 22,24.) Sarat,AustinandJuergenMartschukat,eds.IstheDeathPenaltyDying?:EuropeanandAmericanPerspectives(2011) Woolf,Alex(2004).Worldissues–CapitalPunishment.ChrysalisEducation.ISBN 978-1-59389-155-8.formiddleschoolstudents Simon,Rita(2007).Acomparativeanalysisofcapitalpunishment :statutes,policies,frequencies,andpublicattitudestheworldover.LexingtonBooks.ISBN 978-0-7391-2091-0. Steiker,CarolS."CapitalpunishmentandAmericanexceptionalism."OregonLawReview.81(2002):97+online Externallinks About.com'sPros&ConsoftheDeathPenaltyandCapitalPunishment CapitalPunishmentarticleintheInternetEncyclopediaofPhilosophy. 1000+DeathPenaltylinksallinoneplace Updatesonthedeathpenaltygenerallyandcapitalpunishmentlawspecifically TexasDepartmentofCriminalJustice:listofexecutedoffendersandtheirlaststatements DeathPenaltyWorldwide:Archived13November2013attheWaybackMachineAcademicresearchdatabaseonthelaws,practice,andstatisticsofcapitalpunishmentforeverydeathpenaltycountryintheworld. Answers.comentryoncapitalpunishment "HowtoKillaHumanBeing",BBCHorizonTVprogrammedocumentary,2008 U.S.and50Statedeathpenalty/capitalpunishmentlawandotherrelevantlinksMegalaw TwoaudiodocumentariescoveringexecutionintheUnitedStates:WitnesstoanExecutionTheExecutionTapes WrongfullyConvictedCitizens:capitalpunishmentofwrongfullyconvictedcitizensintheUS,2017 Infavour ExternalvideoSingapore'sMandatoryDeathPenaltyonDrugTrafficking-GovernmentofSingapore Studiesshowingthedeathpenaltysaveslives CriminalJusticeLegalFoundation Keeplifewithoutparoleanddeathpenaltyintact Whythedeathpenaltyisneeded ProDeathPenalty.com ProDeathPenaltyResourcePage 119ProDPLinks TheDeathPenaltyisConstitutional TheParadoxesofaDeathPenaltyStancebyCharlesLaneinTheWashingtonPost ClarkCounty,Indiana,Prosecutor'sPageoncapitalpunishment InFavorofCapitalPunishment–FamousQuotessupportingCapitalPunishment Studiesspurnewdeathpenaltydebate Opposing WorldCoalitionAgainsttheDeathPenalty DeathWatchInternationalInternationalanti-deathpenaltycampaigngroup CampaigntoEndtheDeathPenalty Anti-DeathPenaltyInformation:includesamonthlywatchlistofupcomingexecutionsanddeathpenaltystatisticsfortheUnitedStates. TheDeathPenaltyInformationCenter:Statisticalinformationandstudies AmnestyInternational–AbolishthedeathpenaltyCampaign:HumanRightsorganisation EuropeanUnion:Informationonanti-deathpenaltypolicies IPSInterPressServiceInternationalnewsoncapitalpunishment DeathPenaltyFocus:Americangroupdedicatedtoabolishingthedeathpenalty Reprieve.org:UnitedStates-basedvolunteerprogramforforeignlawyers,students,andotherstoworkatdeathpenaltydefenseoffices AmericanCivilLibertiesUnion:DemandingaMoratoriumontheDeathPenalty NationalCoalitiontoAbolishtheDeathPenalty NSWCouncilforCivilLibertiesArchived15October2015attheWaybackMachine:anAustralianorganisationopposedtotheDeathPenaltyintheAsianregion Winningawaronterror:eliminatingthedeathpenalty ElectricChairatSingSing,a1900photographbyWilliamM.VanderWeyde,accompaniedbyapoembyJaredCarter. LeadprosecutorapologizesforroleinsendingmantodeathrowShreveportTimes,2015 JamesHaughton(1850)."Ondeathpunishments:apaperreadbeforetheDublinStatisticalSociety".JournaloftheStatisticalandSocialInquirySocietyofIreland.Dublin:StatisticalandSocialInquirySocietyofIreland.hdl:2262/7759.ISSN 0081-4776.Wikidata Q28925851. Religiousviews TheDalaiLama–Messagesupportingthemoratoriumonthedeathpenalty Buddhism&CapitalPunishmentfromTheEngagedZenSociety OrthodoxUnionwebsite:RabbiYosefEdelstein:ParshatBeha'alotcha:AFewReflectionsonCapitalPunishment PriestsforLife–ListsseveralCatholiclinks TheDeathPenalty:WhytheChurchSpeaksaCounterculturalMessagebyKennethR.Overberg,S.J.,fromAmericanCatholic.org WrestlingwiththeDeathPenaltybyAndyPrince,fromYouthUpdateonAmericanCatholic.org Herbermann,Charles,ed.(1913)."CapitalPunishment" .CatholicEncyclopedia.NewYork:RobertAppletonCompany. CatholicsAgainstCapitalPunishment:offersaCatholicperspectiveandprovidesresourcesandlinks KashifShahzada2010:WhyTheDeathPenaltyIsun-Islamic? vteCapitalpunishmentRetentionistcountries Afghanistan Bahamas Bangladesh Bahrain Belarus Botswana China Cuba Egypt India Iran Iraq Jamaica Japan Jordan Lebanon Maldives Nigeria NorthKorea Pakistan Qatar SaudiArabia Singapore Somalia SouthSudan Sudan Syria Taiwan Thailand UnitedArabEmirates UnitedStates Vietnam Yemen Retentionistcountrieswithrecentlyimposedmoratorium Comoros TheGambia Indonesia Lesotho Malaysia Abolitionistinpracticecountries Brunei Kenya Laos Morocco Russia SouthKorea SriLanka Tajikistan Tonga Abolitionistforordinarycrimesonly Brazil Guatemala Israel Peru Abolitionistcountries Albania Andorra Armenia Australia Austria Azerbaijan Belgium Bhutan BosniaandHerzegovina Bulgaria Cambodia Canada CapeVerde CostaRica Croatia Cyprus CzechRepublic Denmark Estonia Finland France Georgia Germany Greece HongKong Hungary Iceland Ireland Italy 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