Urban Problems and Policy | Boundless Sociology - Lumen ...

Suburbanization is a term used to describe the growth of areas on the fringes of major cities. Sudden and extreme relocation out of urban areas into the ... Skiptomaincontent BoundlessSociology PopulationandUrbanization Searchfor: UrbanProblemsandPolicy Suburbanization Suburbanizationisatermusedtodescribethegrowthofareasonthefringesofmajorcities. LearningObjectives Analyzethevariouspushandpullfactorsthatleadtosuburbanization,includingtheconceptofwhiteflight,aswellastheimpactofsuburbanizationonurbanareas KeyTakeaways KeyPoints Inthemid-twentiethcenturyUnitedStates,suburbanizationwascausedbyfederalgovernmentalincentivestoencouragesuburbangrowthandaphenomenondubbed”whiteflight”wherewhiteresidentssoughttodistancethemselvesfromracialminoritiesinurbanareas. Pushfactorsarethosethatpushpeopleoutofurbanareaswhilepullfactorsarethosethatenticeindividualstoleaveurbanzonesforthesuburbs. Pullfactorsarethosethatattractpeopletosuburbsinparticular(likemorelandorbiggerhomes). Whiteflightreferstothelarge-scalemigrationofwhitesfromraciallymixedurbanregionstomoreraciallyhomogenoussuburbanareas. KeyTerms InterstateHighwaySystem:TheDwightD.EisenhowerNationalSystemofInterstateandDefenseHighways(commonlyknownastheInterstateHighwaySystem,InterstateFreewaySystemortheInterstate)isanetworkoflimited-accessroads,includingfreeways,highways,andexpressways,formingpartoftheNationalHighwaySystemoftheUnitedStates. whiteflight:Thelarge-scalemigrationofwhitesofvariousEuropeanancestries,fromraciallymixedurbanregionstomoreraciallyhomogeneoussuburbanareas. Redlining:Redliningisthepracticeofincreasingthecostofservicessuchasbankingandinsuranceordenyingaccesstojobs,healthcare,orevensupermarketstoresidentsinparticularareas. Suburbanizationisatermusedtodescribethegrowthofareasonthefringesofmajorcities.Suddenandextremerelocationoutofurbanareasintothesuburbsisoneofthemanycausesofurbansprawl,assuburbsgrowtoaccommodatetheincreasinglylargepopulation.Manyresidentsofsuburbsstillworkwithinthecentralurbanarea,choosinginsteadtoliveinthesuburbsandcommutetowork. Suburbanizationiscausedbymanyfactorsthataretypicallyclassifiedintopushandpullfactors.Pushfactorsarethosethatpushpeopleoutoftheiroriginalhomesinurbanareasintosuburbanareas.Pullfactorsarethosethatattractpeopletosuburbsinparticular.Themainpushfactorsinencouragingsuburbanizationhavetodowithindividualsfeelingtiredofcitylifeandtheperceptionthaturbanareasareoverpopulated,over-polluted,anddirty.Further,themid-twentiethcenturymovementof“whiteflight”significantlycontributedtotheriseofsuburbsintheUnitedStates.Thetermreferstothelarge-scalemigrationofwhitesfromraciallymixedurbanregionstomoreraciallyhomogenoussuburbanareas.WhiteflightbeganinearnestintheUnitedStatesfollowingWorldWarIIandcontinues,thoughinlessovertways,today. Formanyofthefamiliesthatfledthecityinfavorofthesuburbs,thecatalystwastheperceptionofraciallydiverseurbanareasaslower-classandcrime-ridden.Realestatelawatthetimeenabledthisprocess,asmanyminoritieswerelegallyexcludedfrompurchasingpropertiesinsuburbanareas.Theseracistpractices,calledredlining,barredAfrican-Americansfrompursuinghomeownership,evenwhentheycouldaffordit.Suburbanexpansionwasreservedformiddle-classwhitepeople,facilitatedbyincreasingwagesinthepostwareconomyandbyfederallyguaranteedmortgagesthatwereonlyavailabletowhitesbecauseofredlining.African-Americansandotherminoritieswererelegatedtoastateofpermanentrentership. Theeffectsofwhiteflightarestillseentoday.Take,forexample,thecaseofSt.Louis,Missouri.St.LouisisacitysurroundedbysuburbsthatareclumpedtogetherasthecountyofSt.Louis.St.LouisCountydevelopedaswhitesfledthecityforthesuburbs.TheracialmakeupofthecitySt.LouisandSt.LouisCountystillreflecttheracialcomponentofthecounty’sorigins.Accordingtothe2010UnitedStatesCensus,thecityofSt.Louisis49.2percentAfrican-American,43.9percentCaucasian,3.5percentHispanic,2.9percentAsian,and0.3percentNativeAmerican.Bycomparison,St.LouisCountyis70.3percentCaucasian,23.3percentAfricanAmerican,3.5percentAsian,2.5percentHispanic,and0.03percentPacificIslander.Attheturnofthecentury,theracialdisparitieswereevenmoreexaggerated. Pullfactorsforsuburbanizationattheturnofthecenturyincludedmoreopenspaces,theperceptionofbeingclosertonature,andlowersuburbanhousepricesandpropertytaxesincomparisontocities.Certaininfrastructurechangesencouragedfamiliestoleaveurbanareasforsuburbanones,primarilythedevelopmentoftheInterstateHighwaySystemandinsurancepoliciesfavoringsuburbanareas.FollowingWorldWarII,PresidentDwightD.Eisenhowerlaunchedaninitiativetocreatefederalhighwaystoallowforexpansionoutsideofurbanareas.Thus,theinterstatehighwayprojectofthe1950swasdevelopedwithsuburbanizationinmind.Additionally,thegovernmentagreedtounderwritemortgagesforsuburbanone-familyhomes.Ineffect,thegovernmentwasencouragingthetransferofthemiddle-classpopulationoutoftheinnercityandintothesuburbs.Thismovementisthoughttohaveexacerbatedurbandeclineincities.Insurancecompaniesalsofueledthepushoutofcitiesandthegrowthofsuburbs,asitredlinedmanyinner-cityneighborhoods.Thismeansthatinsurancecompanieswouldrefusetograntmortgageloanstofamiliesseekinghousinginurbanareasandwouldinsteadofferlowerratesinsuburbanareas;combinedwiththefederalloansforsingle-familysuburbanhomes,oneseesajointenterprisebetweenbothpublicandprivateentitiestoencouragesuburbanization. Themassmovementoffamiliesfromurbantosuburbanareashashadaseriouseconomicimpactwithchangesininfrastructure,industry,realestatedevelopmentcosts,fiscalpolicies,andmore.Asaresultofthemassresidentialmigrationoutofurbancenters,manyindustrieshavefollowedsuit.Companiesareincreasinglylookingtobuildindustrialparksinlesspopulatedareas,largelytomatchthedesiresofemployeestoworkinmorespaciousareasclosertotheirsuburbanhomes.“Makingittothesuburbs”hasbecomeamoderniterationoftheAmericandream.Asresidentialwealthandcorporationscontinuetoleaveurbanzonesinfavorofsuburbanareas,theriskofurbandeclineincreases. DisinvestmentandDeindustrialization Deindustrializationreferstotheprocessofsocialandeconomicchangeignitedbytheremovalorreductionofindustrialactivity. LearningObjectives Examinethefourelementsofdeindustrializationanditsimpactonsociety,intermsofeconomicrestructuringandsocietalcrisis KeyTakeaways KeyPoints Deindustrializationisprimarilycausedbyoffshoringandshiftstowardservicesectoreconomies. Deindustrializationcanhaveserioussocioeconomicconsequencesinurbanareasthatusedtobereliantonthemanufacturingindustryforjobs. Theshifttoaservicesectoreconomyiscalledeconomicrestructuring. RealindustrialproductionroseintheUnitedStatesineveryyearfrom1983to2007.However,thenumberofAmericanworkersinthemanufacturingindustryhasdeclinedsteadilyfromitspeakof31.5millionin2000. KeyTerms economicrestructuring:Economicrestructuringreferstothephenomenonofshiftingbetweentwotypesofeconomies,suchasfromamanufacturingtoserviceeconomyoragriculturaltomanufacturingeconomy. balanceoftradedeficit:Asituationinwhichacountryimportsmoremanufacturedproductsthanitexports. Foreigndirectinvestment:Foreigndirectinvestmentisinvestmentdirectlyintoproductioninacountrybyacompanylocatedinanothercountry,eitherbybuyingacompanyinthetargetcountryorbyexpandingoperationsofanexistingbusinessinthatcountry. Deindustrializationreferstotheprocessofsocialandeconomicchangeignitedbytheremovalorreductionofindustrialactivity/capacityinanareathatwasformerlysupportedbythemanufacturingindustry.Deindustrializationislimitedtorecenthistoricalmoments.Itistheinverseprocessofindustrialization—theprocessofsocialandeconomicchangethatbeganintheeighteenthcentury,transformingagrariansocietiesintoindustrialones. CharacteristicsofDeindustrialization Deindustrializationismarkedbysomecombinationoffourelements. First,astraightforwarddeclineintheoutputofmanufacturedgoodsorinemploymentinthemanufacturingsectormayindicatedeindustrialization.However,noteverysimpledeclineinoutputoremploymentofthemanufacturingsectornecessarilyindicatesdeindustrialization;short-rundownturnsmaybepartoftheeconomiccycleandshouldnotbemistakenforlong-termdeindustrialization. Second,deindustrializationmaybeindicatedbyashiftfrommanufacturingtotheservicesector—economicsectorsthatfocusonservingothersratherthanproducingsomephysicalobject.Servicesectorjobsareseeningovernment,telecommunication,healthcare,banking,education,legalservices,tourism,realestate,orconsulting.Thisshifttowardsservicesectoremploymentwouldresultashrinkingmanufacturingsector. Third,deindustrializationcanbemarkedbyabalanceoftradedeficit,orasituationinwhichacountryimportsmoremanufacturedproductsthanitexports. Finally,deindustrializationcanbeobservedwhenanation’sbalanceoftradedeficitissosustainedthatthecountryisunabletopayforthenecessaryimportsofmaterialsneededtofurtherproducegoods,initiatingadownwardspiralofeconomicdecline. EconomicProgress Howisitthateconomiesfindthemselvesinsituationsofdeindustrialization?Oneexplanationcentersoneconomicprogress.Aseconomiesthatwereonceindustrialimprovetheirmethodsthroughtechnologicalinnovation,businesseswillfindwaystoincreaseproductivityorproductgrowthwhiledecreasingtheamountofresourcestheyneedtodevotetoproduction.One“resource”thatisparticularlyexpensiveislabor.Withbettertechnology,employersareabletoproduceatleastthesameamountoftheirproductwithfeweremployees.Thedeclineinemploymentinmanufacturingsectorsthatcomesaboutfromthisprogresscanindicatedeindustrialization. EconomicResturcturing Anotherexplanationfocusesoneconomicrestructuring—institutionalandgovernmentalencouragementofthedevelopmentofamorerobustservicesector,oftenattheexpenseofthemanufacturingsector.Astheservicesectorhasdeveloped,moreandmoremanufacturingplantshaveshiftedtheiroperationsoverseasinaprocesscalledoffshoring.Americancompaniesarestillinvolvedinthefinancialaspectsofthecompany;thecompanyremainsanAmericanpropertyorAmericanfinanciersinvestthroughforeigndirectinvestmentincompaniesbasedabroad.Inthismodel,dailyoperationoccursoverseas,includingthehiringofforeignworkersinthecountrywherethemanufacturingoperationsarenowbased.Offshoringdemonstratestheimportanceofscalewhenconsideringtheprocessofdeindustrialization.WhilemovingacompanyfromtheUnitedStatestoIndiamightresultindeindustrializationinAmerica,itdoesnothingtodiminishindustryglobally.Rather,itredistributesindustrializationtoIndia.Assuch,deindustrializationcanbeseenasaredistributionofindustrialcapacityanddevelopmentratherthanasimpledecline. DeindustrializationasaCrisis Whenonelimitsone’sviewtoanationalcontext,deindustrializationisseenasacrisis.Thefactthatglobalindustrialcapacityhasmerelybeenredistributedislittlecomfortwhenjobsarebeinglostathome.AccordingtotheOrganizationforEconomicCooperationandDevelopment(OECD),realindustrialproductionroseintheUnitedStatesineveryyearfrom1983to2007.However,peoplecommonlyrefertotheUnitedStatesbeingincaughtinadeindustrializationcrisis;growthhasslowedandmorecountrieshavemovedtheiroperationsoverseas.ThenumberofAmericanworkersinthemanufacturingindustryhasdeclinedsteadilyfromitspeakof31.5millionin2000. ThecityofDetroitrepresentsthedeindustrializationcrisisintheAmericancontext.Afterfree-tradeagreementswereinstitutedwithless-developednationsinthe1980sand1990s,Detroit-basedautomanufacturersrelocatedtheirproductionfacilitiestoothercountrieswithlowerwagesandworkstandards.Thisprocesstookaheavytollonanautoindustry,whichwasalreadylosingjobsduetotechnologicalinnovationsthatrequiredlessmanuallabor.Detroitwasonceacenterofproductionassociatedwithahigh-quality,middle-classstandardofliving.Today,Detroitisassociatedwithahighconcentrationofpoverty,unemployment,noticeableracialisolation,andadesertedurbancenter.Deindustrializationcanhavestronglynegativeeffectsinurbanareasthatwereformerlyheavilyreliantuponthemanufacturingsector. TheUnitedStatesRustBelt:TheRustBeltreferstonorthernU.S.citiesthathaveundergonerapiddeindustrialization,includingthelossofmanufacturingjobs.Onthemap,greenareashaveseengainsinmanufacturingjobswhileallotherareashaveexperiencedlosses. DeindustrializationandRedevelopment:ThisformerBethlehemSteelPlantinPennsylvaniawasdemolishedafterthecompanywentoutofbusiness.Ithasbeenreplacedbyacasino. ThePotentialofUrbanRevitalization Urbanrevitalizationinvolvesredevelopingblightedurbanareasfornewuses. LearningObjectives Examinethepostwardevelopmentofurbanrevitalization,specificallyrelatedtoTitleIoftheHousingActof1949 KeyTakeaways KeyPoints UrbanrevitalizationhasbeenaroundsinceEuropeancityplannersinthenineteenthcenturybegantoconsiderhowtoreorganizeoverpopulatedurbanareas. TitleIoftheHousingActof1949kick-startedtheurbanrenewalprogramthatwouldreshapeAmericancities. Urbanrenewalcanhavemanypositiveeffects,includingbetterqualityhousing,reducedsprawl,increasedeconomiccompetitiveness,improvedculturalandsocialamenities,andimprovedsafety. Thegovernmenthasonlyhadmixedsuccessinactuallyrestoringurbanareasandhastriedtorebrandurbanrenewalascommunityredevelopment. KeyTerms eminentdomain:(US)Therightofagovernmentoverthelandswithinitsjurisdiction.Usuallyinvokedtocompellandownerstoselltheirpropertyinpreparationforamajorconstructionproject,suchasafreeway. HousingActof1949:TheAmericanHousingActof1949wasalandmark,sweepingexpansionofthefederalroleinmortgageinsuranceandissuanceandtheconstructionofpublichousing.ItwaspartofHarryTruman’sprogramofdomesticlegislation,theFairDeal. Urbanrevitalizationishailedbymanyasasolutiontotheproblemsofurbandeclineby,asthetermsuggests,revitalizingdecayingurbanareas.Urbanrevitalizationiscloselyrelatedtoprocessesofurbanrenewal,orprogramsoflandredevelopmentinareasofmoderate-tohigh-densityurbanlanduse.UrbanrevitalizationhasbeenaroundsinceEuropeancityplannersinthenineteenthcenturybegantoconsiderhowtoreorganizeoverpopulatedurbanareas.However,themoderninstantiationofurbanrevitalizationisverymuchaproductofthepost-WorldWarIIeconomicandsocialenvironment.WiththeinfluxofmoneyfollowingWorldWarII,thefederalgovernmentspotlightedAmericanurbanareasastheobjectofrenovation. Mostofthepostwardevelopmentwasfocusedonsuburbanization,buturbanrevitalizationwasastatutorycorollarytosuburbandevelopment.TitleIoftheHousingActof1949kick-startedtheurbanrenewalprogramthatwouldreshapeAmericancities.TheActprovidedfederalfundingtocitiestocoverthecostofacquiringdecliningareasofcitiesperceivedtobeslums.Accordingtotheact,thefederalgovernmentpaidtwo-thirdsofthecostofacquiringthesite,called“thewritedown,”whilethelocalgovernmentspaidfortheremainingone-third.Mostofthemoneywenttowardspurchasingthepropertyfromthepresentowners.Thisprocessiscalled”eminentdomain,”ortheprocessthroughwhichthegovernmentacquiresprivatepropertyforthelargerpublicgood.Theprocessofeminentdomainrequiresthatthegovernmentprovideduecompensationbutdoesnotnecessarilyrequiretheprivatepropertyowner’sconsent.Inthepost-warera,afteracquiringtheproperties,thegovernmentgavemuchofthelandtoprivatedeveloperstoconstructnewurbanhousing.Thesefederalincentivestorevitalizedecliningurbanareaswereparticularlyattractivetocitiesthatwereinstatesofeconomicdeclineatthetime. Urbanrevitalizationcertainlyprovidespotentialforfutureurbangrowth,thoughthestoryofsuccessesandfailuresremainsmixedsofar.Urbanrenewalcanhavemanypositiveeffects.Replenishedhousingstockmightsignifyanimprovementinquality;urbanrenewalmayincreasedensityandreducesprawl,anditmighthaveeconomicbenefitsthatimprovetheeconomiccompetitivenessofthecity’scenter.Itcanalsoimproveculturalandsocialamenities,throughtheconstructionofpublicspacesandcommunitycenters,andcanimprovesafety. MelbourneDocklandsRenewal:TheMelbourneDocklandswereonceavastexpanseofunuseddocks,buttheyhavenowbeenturnedintoaresidentialandcommercialdevelopment. UrbanGentrification Gentrificationoccurswhenwealthierpeoplebuyorrentpropertyinalow-incomeorworkingclassneighborhood,displacingresidents. LearningObjectives Discusstheprocessofgentrificationbasedonthreemodels–demographic,socioculturalandpolitical/economy KeyTakeaways KeyPoints Whilegentrificationcanbringabouthighertaxrevenuesfromhigherpropertyvalues,gentrificationalsodislocatespre-gentrificationresidentsbyraisingrentsbeyondtheirpriceranges. Gentrificationhasencounteredbacklashfromtheoriginalresidentsofacommunity,manyofwhomorganizetofightagainstthewhiteandwealthyincomingpopulation. Severalexplanationsforgentrificationexist,includingademographic-ecologicalmodel,asocioculturalmodel,andapoliticaleconomicmodel. KeyTerms babyboomergeneration:Thebabyboomergeneration,orthosebornduringthespikeinbirthsinthetwentyyearsfollowingWorldWarII,isstartingtoreachseniorcitizenship,andwillsoonpullfromthepublicfundsofSocialSecurityandMedicare. urbanpioneers:Inthe1970s,thefirstfewsuburbantransplantswerecalledurbanpioneersanddemonstratedthatcitieswereactuallyappropriateandviableplacestolive. gentrification:Theprocessofrenewalandrebuildingaccompanyingtheinfluxofmiddleclassoraffluentpeopleintodeterioratingareasthatoftendisplacesearlierusuallypoorerresidents. Gentrificationhasgainedattentionoverthelast50years,associologistsattempttoexplaintheinfluxofmiddle-classpeopletocitiesandneighborhoodsandthedisplacementoflower-classworkingresidents.Gentrificationoccurswhenwealthierpeoplebuyorrentpropertyinlow-incomeorworkingclassneighborhoods,drivinguppropertyvaluesandrent.Whileitbringsmoneyintoblightedurbanareas,itoftencomesattheexpenseofpoorer,pre-gentrificationresidentswhocannotaffordincreasedrentsandpropertytaxes. HowtoGentrifyYourNeighborhood–AVideoParody:ThiscomedyvideoraisesmanycritiquesofgentrificationbyparodyingthegentrificationofBrooklyn,NY.Manycriticsofgentrificationpointtoitseffectsonracialcompositionoftheneighborhoodaslow-incomeresidentsaredisplaced. Thefirsturbanpioneersinagentrifyingneighborhoodmayhavelowerincomes,butpossesstheculturalcapital(e.g.,education)characteristicofsuburbanresidents.Theyareoftensociallyandprofessionallydominantwhileeconomicallymarginalized.Partiallyduetotheirageandlow-incomes,theseindividualsfrequentlyresideinhouseholdswithroommatesandaremoretolerantoftheperceivedevilsofthecity,suchascrime,poorschools,andinsufficientpublicservices.Thus,theyarewillingtomoveintomarginalneighborhoods.Whenthenumberofurbanpioneersreachessuchacriticalmass,itattractsbusinessinvestmentandnewamenitiessuchasbars,restaurants,andartgalleries.Oncetheurbanpioneersandbusinesseshavetakenthefinancialriskoutofthecommunity,risk-averseinvestorsandresidentsmayenterthenewlygentrifiedneighborhood.Renewedbusinessattractsmoreinvestmentcapitalandnewresidents,increasinglocalpropertyvalues.Ironically,uponfullgentrification,theurbanpioneersarefrequentlyevictedasrentsandtaxesrise,andtheyoung,poorprofessionalscannolongeraffordtoliveinthearea. Gentrificationisoftenresistedbythosedisplacedbyrisingrents.However,whileprotestshaveaneconomicdimension,claimsareusuallyarticulatedasalossofcultureordismayoverthehomogenizationandflatteningofaformerlydiverseneighborhood:gentrificationgenerallyincreasestheproportionofyoung,white,middle-toupper-incomeresidents. ExplanationsofGentrification Demographic Thedemographicexplanationemphasizestheimpactofthebabyboomergeneration,bornafterWorldWarII.Inthe1970s,thisledtoaspikeintheyoungadultpopulation,increasingdemandforhousing.Tomeetthedemand,urbanareashadtobe“recycled,”orgentrified.Thenewbabyboomerresidentsdepartedfromthesuburbanfamilyidea,marryinglaterandhavingfewerchildren;womeninthebabyboomergenerationwerethefirsttoentertheworkforceinseriousnumbers.Newurbanresidentswerecomposedofhigher,dual-incomecoupleswithoutchildren,lessconcernedaboutspaceforlargefamilies—oneofthemaindrawstothesuburbsfortheirparents.Instead,theywereinterestedinlivingincitiesclosetotheircareersandenjoyingtheamenitiestheirhigherincomescouldafford. Sociocultural ArtistsmoveintoWilliamsburg:InWilliamsburgandotherpartsofBrooklyn,NewYork,artistshaveadoptedindustrialspacesasstudiosandgalleries.Thisculturalredevelopmentisevidenceofgentrification. Thesocioculturalexplanationisbasedontheassumptionthatvaluesandbeliefsinfluencebehavior.Itfocusesonthechanginglifestylesandvaluesofthemiddle-andupper-classesinthe1970s.Atthistime,thesuburbanidealwasfallingoutoffavor;fewerpeopleweremovingtosuburbsandmoreweremovingbacktocities.Thesefirstfewsuburbantransplants,orurbanpioneers,demonstratedthatcitieswereviableplacestoliveandbegandevelopingatypeofinner-citychicthatwasattractivetootherbabyboomers,whichinturnbroughtaninfluxofyoungaffluencetoinnercities. PoliticalEconomy Politicaleconomicexplanationsargueneweconomicorpolicyincentivescontributetogentrification.Inpart,thechangingpoliticalclimateofthe1950sand1960sproducednewcivilrightslegislation,suchasanti-discriminationlawsinhousingandemploymentanddesegregationlaws.Thesepoliciesenabledblackfamiliestomoveoutofurbancentersandintothesuburbs,thusdecreasingtheavailabilityofsuburbanland,whileintegrationistpoliciesencouragedwhitemovementintotraditionallyblackurbanareas. Analternativeexplanationsuggeststhatdevelopersandgovernmentencouragedgentrificationwithaneyetowardprofit.Gentrificationmaybedrivenbygovernmentshopingtoraisepropertyvaluesandincreaserevenuefromtaxes.Itmaybetheresultoffluctuatingrelationshipsbetweencapitalinvestmentsandtheproductionofurbanspace.DuringthetwodecadesfollowingWorldWarII,lowrentsinthecity’speripheryencouragedsuburbandevelopment;ascapitalinvestmentmovedtosuburbs,inner-citypropertyvaluesfell.Developerswereabletoseethattheycouldpurchasethedevaluedurbanland,redeveloptheproperties,andturnaprofit. ShrinkingCitiesandCounter-Urbanization Counterurbanizationismovementawayfromcities,includingsuburbanization,exurbanization,ormovementtoruralareas. LearningObjectives Analyzethereasonsforsuburbanizationandcounterurbanization,specificallywhiteflight KeyTakeaways KeyPoints Whiteflightisoneexplanationforwidespreadcounterurbanizationinthepost-WWIIeraintheU.S.Itreferstothemovementofmiddleandupper-classwhitestosuburbstoavoidlivinginareaswithhighproportionsofracialminorities. Counterurbanizationcanleadtoshrinkingcities.Citieswithdecliningpopulationsexperienceeconomicstrainsasinfrastructureexceedstheneedsofashrinkingpopulationandcostsmorepercapitathanduringthecity’speak. Severalapproacheshavebeenemployedinattemptstoaddresstheproblemsofshrinkingcities.Oftentheseapproachesaimtoincreaseurbandensity. KeyTerms exurbanization:Exurbanizationreferstotheprocessinthe1990swhenupperclasscitydwellersmovedoutofthecity,beyondthesuburbs,toliveinhigh-endhousinginthecountryside. urbandecay:Urbandecayisaprocesswherebyacity,orpartofacity,fallsintodisrepairanddecrepitude. whiteflight:Thelarge-scalemigrationofwhitesofvariousEuropeanancestries,fromraciallymixedurbanregionstomoreraciallyhomogeneoussuburbanareas. SuburbanizationandCounterurbanization Recently,indevelopedcountries,sociologistshaveobservedsuburbanizationandcounterurbanization,ormovementawayfromcities,whichmaybedrivenbytransportationinfrastructureorsocialfactorslikeracism.Indevelopingcountries,urbanizationischaracterizedbylarge-scalemovementsofpeoplefromthecountrysideintocities.Indevelopedcountries,peopleareabletomoveoutofcitieswhilemaintainingmanyoftheadvantagesofcitylifebecauseimprovedcommunicationsandmeansoftransportation.Infact,counterurbanizationappearsmostcommonamongthemiddleandupperclasseswhocanaffordtobuytheirownhomes. WhiteFlight Sociologistshavepositedmanyexplanationsforcounterurbanization,butoneofthemostdebatedknownas“whiteflight.”Theterm“whiteflight”wascoinedinthemid-twentiethcenturytodescribesuburbanizationandthelarge-scalemigrationofwhitesofvariousEuropeanancestriesfromraciallymixedurbanregionstomoreraciallyhomogeneoussuburbanregions.Duringthefirsthalfofthetwentiethcentury,discriminatoryhousingpoliciesoftenpreventedblacksfrommovingtosuburbs;banksandfederalpolicymadeitdifficultforblackstogetthemortgagestheyneededtobuyhouses,andcommunitiesusedrestrictivehousingcovenantstoexcludeminorities. Whiteflightduringthepost-warperiodcontributedtourbandecay,aprocesswherebyacity,orpartofacity,fallsintodisrepairanddecrepitude.Symptomsofurbandecayincludedepopulation,abandonedbuildings,highunemployment,crime,andadesolate,inhospitablelandscape.Whiteflightcontributedtothedrainingofcities’taxbaseswhenmiddle-classpeopleleft.Urbandecaywascausedinpartbythelossofindustrialandmanufacturingjobsastheymovedintoruralareasoroverseas,wherelaborwascheaper. Suburbanization IntheUnitedStates,suburbanizationbeganinearnestafterWorldWarTwo,whensoldiersreturnedfromwarandreceivedgenerousgovernmentsupporttofinancenewhomes.Theseyoungmenwerealsointerestedinsettlingdown,buyingtheirownhomes,andachievingindependenceandalesshecticdailylifewithamoreaffordablecostoflivingthantheycouldfindincities.Thus,suburbswerebuilt—smallercitieslocatedontheedgesofalargercity,whichoftenincluderesidentialneighborhoodsforthoseworkinginthearea.Suburbsgrewdramaticallyinthe1950swhentheU.S.InterstateHighwaySystemwasbuiltandautomobilesbecameaffordableformiddleclassfamilies. Exurbanization Around1990,anothertrendemerged,calledexurbanization:upperclasscitydwellersmovedoutofthecity,beyondthesuburbs,toliveinhigh-endhousinginthecountryside.Thisexurbanizationmaybeanewurbanform.Ratherthandenselypopulatedcenters,citiesmaybecomemorespreadout,composedofmanyinterconnectedsmallertowns.Thehistoryofcounterurbanizationcallsintoquestiondepictionsofurbanizationasaone-wayprocess.ThemodernU.S.experiencehasfollowedacircularpatternoverthelast150years,fromalargelyruralcountry,toahighlyurbancountry,toacountrywithsignificantsuburbanpopulations. ShrinkingCities Whateveritscauses,counterurbanizationhashadseriouseffectsoncities.Asaresultofcounterurbanization,somecitiesarenowlosingpopulation.Theseshrinkingcitiesmayfaceseriousproblemsastheyattempttomaintaininfrastructurebuiltforamuchlargerpopulation.Ascitiesshrink,residentsmustcontributemorepercapitatomaintainfixedinfrastructurecosts(e.g.,forroads,sewers,andpublictransportation).Dispersedneighborhoodsthatcharacterizeshrinkingcitiesarealsoamajorsourceoffiscaldistress.Thesecitiesmuststillprovideserviceslikefireprotectionandtrashpickuptofewerandfewercitizensoveralargergeographicdistance,raisingthepercapitacost. Severalapproacheshavebeenemployedinattemptstoaddresstheseproblems.Oftentheseapproachesaimtoincreaseurbandensity.Forexample,plannersmayrevitalizecoreareas,likedowntown,tomakethemmoreattractivetobusinessesandresidents.Othercitieshavetriedsettinganurbangrowthboundarytolimitsprawl,whichincreasesdensitywithintheboundary.Theboundarygenerallyencompassesthecityanditssurroundingsuburbs,requiringtheentireareatoworktogethertopreventurbanshrinkage.Thismethodisbeingusedsuccessfullyinmanycities(suchasPortland,Oregon)tomaximizereturnsoninfrastructureinvestments. Baltimore—AShrinkingCity:Baltimore,MarylandisanexampleofashrinkingAmericancity.Itspopulationhasdecreasedbyover300,000since1950,leavinginfrastructureforalargerpopulationunused. 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