Drama - Wikipedia

Drama is the specific mode of fiction represented in performance: a play, opera, mime, ballet, etc., performed in a theatre, or on radio or television. Drama FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia Jumptonavigation Jumptosearch "Dramas"redirectshere.Forthefilmgenre,seeDrama(filmandtelevision).Forotheruses,seeDrama(disambiguation). Artworkintendedforperformance,formaltypeofliterature DepictionofascenefromShakespeare'splayRichardIII Literature Majorforms Drama Closetdrama Performance Folklore Fable Legend Myth Oralliterature Proverb Poetry Lyric Narrative Nonsense Prose Novel Novella Shortstory Prosegenres Fiction Coming-of-agenovel Erotic Historical Romance Speculative Fantasy Horror Sciencefiction Nonfiction Autobiography Biography Diary Documentary Epistle Essay History Journalism Letters Memoir Nature Philosophy Speech Travel Poetrygenres Narrativepoetry Epic Dramatic Versenovel Lyric Ballad Elegy Epigram Ghazal Haiku Limerick Ode Qasidah Satire Sonnet Villanelle Dramaticgenres Moralityplay Historyplay Tragedy Comedy Tragicomedy Satire Historyandlists History Outline Glossaryofterms Books Writers Literaryawards poetry Discussion Criticism Theory Sociology Magazines  Literatureportalvte Dramaisthespecificmodeoffictionrepresentedinperformance:aplay,opera,mime,ballet,etc.,performedinatheatre,oronradioortelevision.[1]Consideredasagenreofpoetryingeneral,thedramaticmodehasbeencontrastedwiththeepicandthelyricalmodeseversinceAristotle'sPoetics(c.335BC)—theearliestworkofdramatictheory.[2] Theterm"drama"comesfromaGreekwordmeaning"deed"or"act"(ClassicalGreek:δρᾶμα,drâma),whichisderivedfrom"Ido"(ClassicalGreek:δράω,dráō).Thetwomasksassociatedwithdramarepresentthetraditionalgenericdivisionbetweencomedyandtragedy. InEnglish(aswastheanalogouscaseinmanyotherEuropeanlanguages),thewordplayorgame(translatingtheAnglo-SaxonpleġanorLatinludus)wasthestandardtermfordramasuntilWilliamShakespeare'stime—justasitscreatorwasaplay-makerratherthanadramatistandthebuildingwasaplay-houseratherthanatheatre.[3] Theuseof"drama"inamorenarrowsensetodesignateaspecifictypeofplaydatesfromthemodernera."Drama"inthissensereferstoaplaythatisneitheracomedynoratragedy—forexample,Zola'sThérèseRaquin(1873)orChekhov'sIvanov(1887).Itisthisnarrowersensethatthefilmandtelevisionindustries,alongwithfilmstudies,adoptedtodescribe"drama"asagenrewithintheirrespectivemedia.Theterm”radiodrama“hasbeenusedinbothsenses—originallytransmittedinaliveperformance.Mayalsorefertothemorehigh-browandseriousendofthedramaticoutputofradio.[4] Theenactmentofdramaintheatre,performedbyactorsonastagebeforeanaudience,presupposescollaborativemodesofproductionandacollectiveformofreception.Thestructureofdramatictexts,unlikeotherformsofliterature,isdirectlyinfluencedbythiscollaborativeproductionandcollectivereception.[5] Mimeisaformofdramawheretheactionofastoryistoldonlythroughthemovementofthebody.Dramacanbecombinedwithmusic:thedramatictextinoperaisgenerallysungthroughout;asforinsomeballetsdance"expressesorimitatesemotion,character,andnarrativeaction".[6]Musicalsincludebothspokendialogueandsongs;andsomeformsofdramahaveincidentalmusicormusicalaccompanimentunderscoringthedialogue(melodramaandJapaneseNō,forexample).[7]Closetdramaisaformthatisintendedtoberead,ratherthanperformed.[8]Inimprovisation,thedramadoesnotpre-existthemomentofperformance;performersdeviseadramaticscriptspontaneouslybeforeanaudience.[9] Contents 1HistoryofWesterndrama 1.1ClassicalGreekdrama 1.2ClassicalRomandrama 1.3Medieval 1.4ElizabethanandJacobean 1.5EnglishRestorationcomedy 1.6Modernandpostmodern 2Opera 3Pantomime 4Mime 5Ballet 6Creativedrama 7Asiandrama 7.1India 7.1.1Sanskrittheatre 7.1.2ModernIndiandrama 7.1.3ModernUrdudramaofIndiaandPakistan 7.2China 7.3Japan 8Seealso 9Notes 10Sources 11Externallinks HistoryofWesterndrama[edit] ClassicalGreekdrama[edit] Mainarticle:TheatreofancientGreece Reliefofaseatedpoet(Menander)withmasksofNewComedy,1stcenturyBC–early1stcenturyAD,PrincetonUniversityArtMuseum WesterndramaoriginatesinclassicalGreece.[10]Thetheatricalcultureofthecity-stateofAthensproducedthreegenresofdrama:tragedy,comedy,andthesatyrplay.Theiroriginsremainobscure,thoughbythe5thcenturyBC,theywereinstitutionalisedincompetitionsheldaspartoffestivitiescelebratingthegodDionysus.[11]HistoriansknowthenamesofmanyancientGreekdramatists,notleastThespis,whoiscreditedwiththeinnovationofanactor("hypokrites")whospeaks(ratherthansings)andimpersonatesacharacter(ratherthanspeakinginhisownperson),whileinteractingwiththechorusanditsleader("coryphaeus"),whowereatraditionalpartoftheperformanceofnon-dramaticpoetry(dithyrambic,lyricandepic).[12] Onlyasmallfractionoftheworkoffivedramatists,however,hassurvivedtothisday:wehaveasmallnumberofcompletetextsbythetragediansAeschylus,SophoclesandEuripides,andthecomicwritersAristophanesand,fromthelate4thcentury,Menander.[13]Aeschylus'historicaltragedyThePersiansistheoldestsurvivingdrama,althoughwhenitwonfirstprizeattheCityDionysiacompetitionin472BC,hehadbeenwritingplaysformorethan25years.[14]Thecompetition("agon")fortragediesmayhavebegunasearlyas534BC;officialrecords("didaskaliai")beginfrom501BCwhenthesatyrplaywasintroduced.[15]Tragicdramatistswererequiredtopresentatetralogyofplays(thoughtheindividualworkswerenotnecessarilyconnectedbystoryortheme),whichusuallyconsistedofthreetragediesandonesatyrplay(thoughexceptionsweremade,aswithEuripides'Alcestisin438BC).Comedywasofficiallyrecognizedwithaprizeinthecompetitionfrom487to486BC. FivecomicdramatistscompetedattheCityDionysia(thoughduringthePeloponnesianWarthismayhavebeenreducedtothree),eachofferingasinglecomedy.[16]AncientGreekcomedyistraditionallydividedbetween"oldcomedy"(5thcenturyBC),"middlecomedy"(4thcenturyBC)and"newcomedy"(late4thcenturyto2ndBC).[17] ClassicalRomandrama[edit] Mainarticle:TheatreofancientRome AnivorystatuetteofaRomanactoroftragedy,1stcenturyCE. FollowingtheexpansionoftheRomanRepublic(509–27BC)intoseveralGreekterritoriesbetween270–240BC,RomeencounteredGreekdrama.[18]FromthelateryearsoftherepublicandbymeansoftheRomanEmpire(27BC–476AD),theatrespreadwestacrossEurope,aroundtheMediterraneanandreachedEngland;Romantheatrewasmorevaried,extensiveandsophisticatedthanthatofanyculturebeforeit.[19] WhileGreekdramacontinuedtobeperformedthroughouttheRomanperiod,theyear240BCmarksthebeginningofregularRomandrama.[20]Fromthebeginningoftheempire,however,interestinfull-lengthdramadeclinedinfavourofabroadervarietyoftheatricalentertainments.[21]ThefirstimportantworksofRomanliteraturewerethetragediesandcomediesthatLiviusAndronicuswrotefrom240BC.[22]Fiveyearslater,GnaeusNaeviusalsobegantowritedrama.[22]Noplaysfromeitherwriterhavesurvived.Whilebothdramatistscomposedinbothgenres,AndronicuswasmostappreciatedforhistragediesandNaeviusforhiscomedies;theirsuccessorstendedtospecialiseinoneortheother,whichledtoaseparationofthesubsequentdevelopmentofeachtypeofdrama.[22] Bythebeginningofthe2ndcenturyBC,dramawasfirmlyestablishedinRomeandaguildofwriters(collegiumpoetarum)hadbeenformed.[23]TheRomancomediesthathavesurvivedareallfabulapalliata(comediesbasedonGreeksubjects)andcomefromtwodramatists:TitusMacciusPlautus(Plautus)andPubliusTerentiusAfer(Terence).[24]Inre-workingtheGreekoriginals,theRomancomicdramatistsabolishedtheroleofthechorusindividingthedramaintoepisodesandintroducedmusicalaccompanimenttoitsdialogue(betweenone-thirdofthedialogueinthecomediesofPlautusandtwo-thirdsinthoseofTerence).[25]Theactionofallscenesissetintheexteriorlocationofastreetanditscomplicationsoftenfollowfromeavesdropping.[25] Plautus,themorepopularofthetwo,wrotebetween205and184BCandtwentyofhiscomediessurvive,ofwhichhisfarcesarebestknown;hewasadmiredforthewitofhisdialogueandhisuseofavarietyofpoeticmeters.[26]AllofthesixcomediesthatTerencewrotebetween166and160BChavesurvived;thecomplexityofhisplots,inwhichheoftencombinedseveralGreekoriginals,wassometimesdenounced,buthisdouble-plotsenabledasophisticatedpresentationofcontrastinghumanbehaviour.[26]NoearlyRomantragedysurvives,thoughitwashighlyregardedinitsday;historiansknowofthreeearlytragedians—QuintusEnnius,MarcusPacuvius,andLuciusAccius.[25] Fromthetimeoftheempire,theworkoftwotragedianssurvives—oneisanunknownauthor,whiletheotheristheStoicphilosopherSeneca.[27]NineofSeneca'stragediessurvive,allofwhicharefabulacrepidata(tragediesadaptedfromGreekoriginals);hisPhaedra,forexample,wasbasedonEuripides'Hippolytus.[28]Historiansdonotknowwhowrotetheonlyextantexampleofthefabulapraetexta(tragediesbasedonRomansubjects),Octavia,butinformertimesitwasmistakenlyattributedtoSenecaduetohisappearanceasacharacterinthetragedy.[27] Medieval[edit] Mainarticle:Medievaltheatre Stagedrawingfroma15th-centuryvernacularmoralityplayTheCastleofPerseverance(asfoundintheMacroManuscript). BeginningintheearlyMiddleAges,churchesstageddramatisedversionsofbiblicalevents,knownasliturgicaldramas,toenlivenannualcelebrations.[29]TheearliestexampleistheEastertropeWhomdoyouSeek?(Quem-Quaeritis)(c.925).[30]TwogroupswouldsingresponsivelyinLatin,thoughnoimpersonationofcharacterswasinvolved.Bythe11thcentury,ithadspreadthroughEuropetoRussia,Scandinavia,andItaly;excludingIslamic-eraSpain. Inthe10thcentury,HrosvithawrotesixplaysinLatinmodeledonTerence'scomedies,butwhichtreatedreligioussubjects.[31]HerplaysarethefirstknowntobecomposedbyafemaledramatistandthefirstidentifiableWesterndramaofthepost-Classicalera.[31]Later,HildegardofBingenwroteamusicaldrama,OrdoVirtutum(c.1155).[31] OneofthemostfamousoftheearlysecularplaysisthecourtlypastoralRobinandMarion,writteninthe13thcenturyinFrenchbyAdamdelaHalle.[32]TheInterludeoftheStudentandtheGirl(c.1300),oneoftheearliestknowninEnglish,seemstobetheclosestintoneandformtothecontemporaneousFrenchfarces,suchasTheBoyandtheBlindMan.[33] ManyplayssurvivefromFranceandGermanyinthelateMiddleAges,whensometypeofreligiousdramawasperformedinnearlyeveryEuropeancountry.Manyoftheseplayscontainedcomedy,devils,villains,andclowns.[34]InEngland,tradeguildsbegantoperformvernacular"mysteryplays,"whichwerecomposedoflongcyclesofmanyplayletsor"pageants,"ofwhichfourareextant:York(48plays),Chester(24),Wakefield(32)andtheso-called"N-Town"(42).TheSecondShepherds'PlayfromtheWakefieldcycleisafarcicalstoryofastolensheepthatitsprotagonist,Mak,triestopassoffashisnew-bornchildasleepinacrib;itendswhentheshepherdsfromwhomhehasstolenaresummonedtotheNativityofJesus.[35] Moralityplays(amodernterm)emergedasadistinctdramaticformaround1400andflourishedintheearlyElizabethanerainEngland.Characterswereoftenusedtorepresentdifferentethicalideals.Everyman,forexample,includessuchfiguresasGoodDeeds,KnowledgeandStrength,andthischaracterisationreinforcestheconflictbetweengoodandevilfortheaudience.TheCastleofPerseverance(c.1400—1425)depictsanarchetypalfigure'sprogressfrombirththroughtodeath.Horestes(c.1567),alate"hybridmorality"andoneoftheearliestexamplesofanEnglishrevengeplay,bringstogethertheclassicalstoryofOresteswithaVicefromthemedievalallegoricaltradition,alternatingcomic,slapsticksceneswithserious,tragicones.[36]AlsoimportantinthisperiodwerethefolkdramasoftheMummersPlay,performedduringtheChristmasseason.CourtmasqueswereparticularlypopularduringthereignofHenryVIII.[37] ElizabethanandJacobean[edit] Mainarticle:EnglishRenaissancetheatre OneofthegreatfloweringsofdramainEnglandoccurredinthe16thand17thcenturies.Manyoftheseplayswerewritteninverse,particularlyiambicpentameter.InadditiontoShakespeare,suchauthorsasChristopherMarlowe,ThomasMiddleton,andBenJonsonwereprominentplaywrightsduringthisperiod.Asinthemedievalperiod,historicalplayscelebratedthelivesofpastkings,enhancingtheimageoftheTudormonarchy.AuthorsofthisperioddrewsomeoftheirstorylinesfromGreekmythologyandRomanmythologyorfromtheplaysofeminentRomanplaywrightssuchasPlautusandTerence. EnglishRestorationcomedy[edit] Mainarticle:Restorationcomedy ColleyCibberastheextravagantandaffectedLordFoppington,"brutal,evil,andsmart",inVanbrugh'sTheRelapse(1696). RestorationcomedyreferstoEnglishcomedieswrittenandperformedinEnglandduringtheRestorationperiodfrom1660to1710.ComedyofmannersisusedasasynonymofRestorationcomedy.[38]AfterpublictheatrehadbeenbannedbythePuritanregime,there-openingofthetheatresin1660withtheRestorationofCharlesIIsignalledarenaissanceofEnglishdrama.[39]Restorationcomedyisknownforitssexualexplicitness,urbane,cosmopolitanwit,up-to-the-minutetopicalwriting,andcrowdedandbustlingplots.ItsdramatistsstolefreelyfromthecontemporaryFrenchandSpanishstage,fromEnglishJacobeanandCarolineplays,andevenfromGreekandRomanclassicalcomedies,combiningthevariousplotlinesinadventurousways.Resultingdifferencesoftoneinasingleplaywereappreciatedratherthanfrownedon,astheaudienceprized"variety"withinaswellasbetweenplays.Restorationcomedypeakedtwice.Thegenrecametospectacularmaturityinthemid-1670swithanextravaganzaofaristocraticcomedies.Twentyleanyearsfollowedthisshortgoldenage,althoughtheachievementofthefirstprofessionalfemaleplaywright,AphraBehn,inthe1680sisanimportantexception.Inthemid-1690s,abriefsecondRestorationcomedyrenaissancearose,aimedatawideraudience.Thecomediesofthegolden1670sand1690speaktimesaresignificantlydifferentfromeachother. Theunsentimentalor"hard"comediesofJohnDryden,WilliamWycherley,andGeorgeEtheregereflectedtheatmosphereatCourtandcelebratedwithfranknessanaristocraticmacholifestyleofunremittingsexualintrigueandconquest.TheEarlofRochester,real-lifeRestorationrake,courtierandpoet,isflatteringlyportrayedinEtherege'sTheManofMode(1676)asariotous,witty,intellectual,andsexuallyirresistiblearistocrat,atemplateforposterity'sideaoftheglamorousRestorationrake(actuallyneveraverycommoncharacterinRestorationcomedy).ThesingleplaythatdoesmosttosupportthechargeofobscenitylevelledthenandnowatRestorationcomedyisprobablyWycherley'smasterpieceTheCountryWife(1675),whosetitlecontainsalewdpunandwhosenotorious"chinascene"isaseriesofsustaineddoubleentendres.[40] DuringthesecondwaveofRestorationcomedyinthe1690s,the"softer"comediesofWilliamCongreveandJohnVanbrughsetouttoappealtomoresociallydiverseaudiencewithastrongmiddle-classelement,aswellastofemalespectators.Thecomicfocusshiftsfromyoungloversoutwittingtheoldergenerationtothevicissitudesofmaritalrelations.InCongreve'sLoveforLove(1695)andTheWayoftheWorld(1700),thegive-and-takesetpiecesofcouplestestingtheirattractionforoneanotherhavemutatedintowittyprenuptialdebatesontheeveofmarriage,asinthelatter'sfamous"Proviso"scene.Vanbrugh'sTheProvokedWife(1697)hasalighttouchandmorehumanlyrecognisablecharacters,whileTheRelapse(1696)hasbeenadmiredforitsthrowawaywitandthecharacterisationofLordFoppington,anextravagantandaffectedburlesquefopwithadarkside.[41]ThetoleranceforRestorationcomedyeveninitsmodifiedformwasrunningoutbytheendofthe17thcentury,aspublicopinionturnedtorespectabilityandseriousnessevenfasterthantheplaywrightsdid.[42]Atthemuch-anticipatedall-starpremièrein1700ofTheWayoftheWorld,Congreve'sfirstcomedyforfiveyears,theaudienceshowedonlymoderateenthusiasmforthatsubtleandalmostmelancholywork.Thecomedyofsexandwitwasabouttobereplacedbysentimentalcomedyandthedramaofexemplarymorality. Modernandpostmodern[edit] Thepivotalandinnovativecontributionsofthe19th-centuryNorwegiandramatistHenrikIbsenandthe20th-centuryGermantheatrepractitionerBertoltBrechtdominatemoderndrama;eachinspiredatraditionofimitators,whichincludemanyofthegreatestplaywrightsofthemodernera.[43]Theworksofbothplaywrightsare,intheirdifferentways,bothmodernistandrealist,incorporatingformalexperimentation,meta-theatricality,andsocialcritique.[44]Intermsofthetraditionaltheoreticaldiscourseofgenre,Ibsen'sworkhasbeendescribedastheculminationof"liberaltragedy",whileBrecht'shasbeenalignedwithanhistoricisedcomedy.[45] OtherimportantplaywrightsofthemoderneraincludeAntoninArtaud,AugustStrindberg,AntonChekhov,FrankWedekind,MauriceMaeterlinck,FedericoGarcíaLorca,EugeneO'Neill,LuigiPirandello,GeorgeBernardShaw,ErnstToller,VladimirMayakovsky,ArthurMiller,TennesseeWilliams,JeanGenet,EugèneIonesco,SamuelBeckett,HaroldPinter,FriedrichDürrenmatt,DarioFo,HeinerMüller,andCarylChurchill. Opera[edit] Thissectionneedsadditionalcitationsforverification.Pleasehelpimprovethisarticlebyaddingcitationstoreliablesources.Unsourcedmaterialmaybechallengedandremoved.(April2016)(Learnhowandwhentoremovethistemplatemessage) WesternoperaisadramaticartformthataroseduringtheRenaissance[46]inanattempttorevivetheclassicalGreekdramainwhichdialogue,dance,andsongwerecombined.Beingstronglyintertwinedwithwesternclassicalmusic,theoperahasundergoneenormouschangesinthepastfourcenturiesanditisanimportantformoftheatreuntilthisday.NoteworthyisthemajorinfluenceoftheGerman19th-centurycomposerRichardWagnerontheoperatradition.Inhisview,therewasnoproperbalancebetweenmusicandtheatreintheoperasofhistime,becausethemusicseemedtobemoreimportantthanthedramaticaspectsintheseworks.Torestoretheconnectionwiththeclassicaldrama,heentirelyrenewedtheoperaticformtoemphasizetheequalimportanceofmusicanddramainworksthathecalled"musicdramas". Chineseoperahasseenamoreconservativedevelopmentoverasomewhatlongerperiodoftime. Pantomime[edit] Mainarticle:Pantomime Pantomime(informallypanto),[47]isatypeofmusicalcomedystageproduction,designedforfamilyentertainment.ItwasdevelopedinEnglandandisstillperformedthroughouttheUnitedKingdom,generallyduringtheChristmasandNewYearseasonand,toalesserextent,inotherEnglish-speakingcountries.Modernpantomimeincludessongs,gags,slapstickcomedyanddancing,employsgender-crossingactors,andcombinestopicalhumourwithastorylooselybasedonawell-knownfairytale,fableorfolktale.[48][49]Itisaparticipatoryformoftheatre,inwhichtheaudienceisexpectedtosingalongwithcertainpartsofthemusicandshoutoutphrasestotheperformers. Thesestoriesfollowinthetraditionoffablesandfolktales.Usually,thereisalessonlearned,andwithsomehelpfromtheaudience,thehero/heroinesavestheday.Thiskindofplayusesstockcharactersseeninmasqueandagaincommediadell'arte,thesecharactersincludethevillain(doctore),theclown/servant(Arlechino/Harlequin/buttons),theloversetc.Theseplaysusuallyhaveanemphasisonmoraldilemmas,andgoodalwaystriumphsoverevil,thiskindofplayisalsoveryentertainingmakingitaveryeffectivewayofreachingmanypeople. PantomimehasalongtheatricalhistoryinWesternculturedatingbacktoclassicaltheatre.Itdevelopedpartlyfromthe16thcenturycommediadell'artetraditionofItaly,aswellasotherEuropeanandBritishstagetraditions,suchas17th-centurymasquesandmusichall.[48]Animportantpartofthepantomime,untilthelate19thcentury,wastheharlequinade.[50]OutsideBritaintheword"pantomime"isusuallyusedtomeanmiming,ratherthanthetheatricalformdiscussedhere.[51] Mime[edit] Mimeisatheatricalmediumwheretheactionofastoryistoldthroughthemovementofthebody,withouttheuseofspeech.PerformanceofmimeoccurredinAncientGreece,andthewordistakenfromasinglemaskeddancercalledPantomimus,althoughtheirperformanceswerenotnecessarilysilent.[52]InMedievalEurope,earlyformsofmime,suchasmummerplaysandlaterdumbshows,evolved.IntheearlynineteenthcenturyParis,Jean-GaspardDeburausolidifiedthemanyattributesthatwehavecometoknowinmoderntimes,includingthesilentfigureinwhiteface.[53] JacquesCopeau,stronglyinfluencedbyCommediadell'arteandJapaneseNohtheatre,usedmasksinthetrainingofhisactors.ÉtienneDecroux,apupilofhis,washighlyinfluencedbythisandstartedexploringanddevelopingthepossibilitiesofmimeandrefinedcorporealmimeintoahighlysculpturalform,takingitoutsideoftherealmsofnaturalism.JacquesLecoqcontributedsignificantlytothedevelopmentofmimeandphysicaltheatrewithhistrainingmethods.[54] Ballet[edit] Mainarticle:ballet Whilesomeballetemphasises"thelinesandpatternsofmovementitself"dramaticdance"expressesorimitatesemotion,character,andnarrativeaction".[6]Suchballetsaretheatricalworksthathavecharactersand"tellastory",[55]Dancemovementsinballet"areoftencloselyrelatedtoeverydayformsofphysicalexpression,[sothat]thereisanexpressivequalityinherentinnearlyalldancing",andthisisusedtoconveybothactionandemotions;mimeisalsoused.[55]ExamplesincludePyotrIlyichTchaikovsky'sSwanLake,whichtellsthestoryofOdette,aprincessturnedintoaswanbyanevilsorcerer'scurse,SergeiProkofiev'sballetRomeoandJuliet,basedonShakespeare'sfamousplay,andIgorStravinsky'sPetrushka,whichtellsthestoryofthelovesandjealousiesofthreepuppets. Creativedrama[edit] Creativedramaincludesdramaticactivitiesandgamesusedprimarilyineducationalsettingswithchildren.ItsrootsintheUnitedStatesbeganintheearly1900s.WinifredWardisconsideredtobethefounderofcreativedramaineducation,establishingthefirstacademicuseofdramainEvanston,Illinois.[56] Asiandrama[edit] India[edit] Mainarticle:TheatreinIndia AscenefromthedramaMacbethbyKalidasaKalakendraminKollamcity,India TheearliestformofIndiandramawastheSanskritdrama.[57]Betweenthe1stcenturyADandthe10thwasaperiodofrelativepeaceinthehistoryofIndiaduringwhichhundredsofplayswerewritten.[58]WiththeIslamicconqueststhatbeganinthe10thand11thcenturies,theatrewasdiscouragedorforbiddenentirely.[59]Later,inanattempttore-assertindigenousvaluesandideas,villagetheatrewasencouragedacrossthesubcontinent,developinginvariousregionallanguagesfromthe15thtothe19thcenturies.[60]TheBhaktimovementwasinfluentialinperformancesinseveralregions.Apartfromregionallanguages,AssamsawtheriseofVaishnavitedramainanartificiallymixedliterarylanguagecalledBrajavali.[61]Adistinctformofone-actplayscalledAnkiaNaatdevelopedintheworksofSankardev,[62]aparticularpresentationofwhichiscalledBhaona.[63]ModernIndiantheatredevelopedduringtheperiodofcolonialruleundertheBritishEmpire,fromthemid-19thcenturyuntilthemid-20th.[64] Sanskrittheatre[edit] Mainarticle:Sanskritdrama PerformerplayingSugrivaintheKoodiyattamformofSanskrittheatre. Theearliest-survivingfragmentsofSanskritdramadatefromthe1stcenturyAD.[65]Thewealthofarcheologicalevidencefromearlierperiodsoffersnoindicationoftheexistenceofatraditionoftheatre.[66]TheancientVedas(hymnsfrombetween1500and1000BCthatareamongtheearliestexamplesofliteratureintheworld)containnohintofit(althoughasmallnumberarecomposedinaformofdialogue)andtheritualsoftheVedicperioddonotappeartohavedevelopedintotheatre.[66]TheMahābhāṣyabyPatañjalicontainstheearliestreferencetowhatmayhavebeentheseedsofSanskritdrama.[67]Thistreatiseongrammarfrom140BCprovidesafeasibledateforthebeginningsoftheatreinIndia.[67] ThemajorsourceofevidenceforSanskrittheatreisATreatiseonTheatre(Nātyaśāstra),acompendiumwhosedateofcompositionisuncertain(estimatesrangefrom200BCto200AD)andwhoseauthorshipisattributedtoBharataMuni.TheTreatiseisthemostcompleteworkofdramaturgyintheancientworld.Itaddressesacting,dance,music,dramaticconstruction,architecture,costuming,make-up,props,theorganisationofcompanies,theaudience,competitions,andoffersamythologicalaccountoftheoriginoftheatre.[67] ItsdramaisregardedasthehighestachievementofSanskritliterature.[68]Itutilisedstockcharacters,suchasthehero(nayaka),heroine(nayika),orclown(vidusaka).Actorsmayhavespecialisedinaparticulartype.Itwaspatronizedbythekingsaswellasvillageassemblies.FamousearlyplaywrightsincludeBhasa,Kalidasa(famousforVikramaandUrvashi,MalavikaandAgnimitra,andTheRecognitionofShakuntala),Śudraka(famousforTheLittleClayCart),Asvaghosa,Daṇḍin,andEmperorHarsha(famousforNagananda,Ratnavali,andPriyadarsika).Śakuntalā(inEnglishtranslation)influencedGoethe'sFaust(1808–1832).[68] ModernIndiandrama[edit] Thissectionneedsadditionalcitationsforverification.Pleasehelpimprovethisarticlebyaddingcitationstoreliablesources.Unsourcedmaterialmaybechallengedandremoved.(April2018)(Learnhowandwhentoremovethistemplatemessage) RabindranathTagorewasapioneeringmodernplaywrightwhowroteplaysnotedfortheirexplorationandquestioningofnationalism,identity,spiritualismandmaterialgreed.[69]HisplaysarewritteninBengaliandincludeChitra(Chitrangada,1892),TheKingoftheDarkChamber(Raja,1910),ThePostOffice(Dakghar,1913),andRedOleander(Raktakarabi,1924).[69] GirishKarnadisanotedplaywright,whohaswrittenanumberofplaysthatusehistoryandmythology,tocritiqueandproblematizeideasandidealsthatareofcontemporaryrelevance.Karnad'snumerousplayssuchasTughlaq,Hayavadana,Taledanda,andNaga-MandalaaresignificantcontributionstoIndiandrama.VijayTendulkarandMaheshDattaniareamongstthemajorIndianplaywrightsofthe20thcentury.MohanRakeshinHindiandDanishIqbalinUrduareconsideredarchitectsofnewageDrama.MohanRakesh'sAadheAdhooreandDanishIqbal'sDaraShikohareconsideredmodernclassics. ModernUrdudramaofIndiaandPakistan[edit] Thissectionpossiblycontainsoriginalresearch.Pleaseimproveitbyverifyingtheclaimsmadeandaddinginlinecitations.Statementsconsistingonlyoforiginalresearchshouldberemoved.(December2011)(Learnhowandwhentoremovethistemplatemessage) Thissectionneedsadditionalcitationsforverification.Pleasehelpimprovethisarticlebyaddingcitationstoreliablesources.Unsourcedmaterialmaybechallengedandremoved.(April2018)(Learnhowandwhentoremovethistemplatemessage) UrduDramaevolvedfromtheprevailingdramatictraditionsofNorthIndiashapingRahasorRaasaspracticedbyexponentslikeNawabWajidAliShah(1822–1887)ofAwadh.HisdramaticexperimentsledtothefamousInderSabhaofAmanatandlaterthistraditiontooktheshapeofParsiTheatre.AghaHashrKashmiriistheculminationofthistradition. UrdutheatretraditionhasgreatlyinfluencedmodernIndiantheatre.TheatrehasflourishedinUrdu(whichwascalledHindibyearlywriters),alongwithGujrati,Marathi,andBengali.UrdudramahashadanimportantinfluenceonBombayFilmindustryandalltheearlyworksofUrdutheatre(performedbyParsiCompanies)weremadeintofilms.Urdudramatictraditionhasexistedformorethana100years. ProfHasan,GhulamJeelani,J.N,Kaushal,ShameemHanfi,JameelShaidayi,etc.belongtotheoldgeneration,contemporarywriterslikeDanishIqbal,SayeedAlam,ShahidAnwar,IqbalNiyazi,andAnwarareafewpostmodernplaywrightsactivelycontributinginthefieldofUrduDrama. SayeedAlamisknownforhiswitandhumourandmoreparticularlyforplayslike'GhalibinNewDelhi','BigB'andmanyotherworks,whichareregularlystagedforlargeaudiences.MaulanaAzadishismostimportantplaybothforitscontentandstyle. DanishIqbal'splayDaraShikohdirectedbyM.S.Sathyuisamodernclassicthatusesnewertheatretechniquesandacontemporaryperspective.HisotherplaysareSahir.onthefamouslyricistandrevolutionarypoet.KuchhIshqkiyaKuchhKaamisanotherplaywrittenbyDanishwhichisbasicallyaCelebrationofFaiz'spoetry,featuringeventsfromtheearlypartofhislife,particularlytheeventsandincidentsofpre-partitiondayswhichshapedhislifeandideals.ChandRozAurMeriJaan–anotherplayinspiredfromFaiz'sletterswrittenfromvariousjailsduringtheRawalpindiConspiracydays.Hehaswritten14otherplaysincludingDilliJoEkShehrThaaandMainGayaWaqtNahinhoon.Shahid'sThreeBisalsoasignificantplay.Hehasbeenassociatedwithmanygroupslike'Natwa'andothers.ZaheerAnwarhaskepttheflagofUrdutheatreflyinginKolkata.UnlikethewritersofpreviousgenerationSayeed,Shahid,DanishIqbalandZaheerdonotwritebookishplaysbuttheirworkisaproductofperformingtradition.IqbalNiyaziofMumbaihaswrittenseveralplaysinUrdu,hisplayAURKITNEJALYANWALABAUGH?wonaNationalawardotherawards.HencethisistheonlygenerationafterAmanatandAghaHashrwhoactuallywriteforstageandnotforlibraries. China[edit] Mainarticle:TheatreofChina A1958U.S.S.R.postagestampcommemoratingGuanHanqing,oneofthegreatChinesedramatists,whoisrenownedforhis"zaju"plays. Chinesetheatrehasalongandcomplexhistory.TodayitisoftencalledChineseoperaalthoughthisnormallyrefersspecificallytothepopularformknownasBeijingoperaandKunqu;therehavebeenmanyotherformsoftheatreinChina,suchaszaju. Japan[edit] Mainarticle:TheatreofJapan JapaneseNōdramaisaseriousdramaticformthatcombinesdrama,music,anddanceintoacompleteaestheticperformanceexperience.Itdevelopedinthe14thand15thcenturiesandhasitsownmusicalinstrumentsandperformancetechniques,whichwereoftenhandeddownfromfathertoson.Theperformersweregenerallymale(forbothmaleandfemaleroles),althoughfemaleamateursalsoperformNōdramas.Nōdramawassupportedbythegovernment,andparticularlythemilitary,withmanymilitarycommandershavingtheirowntroupesandsometimesperformingthemselves.ItisstillperformedinJapantoday.[70] KyōgenisthecomiccounterparttoNōdrama.Itconcentratesmoreondialogueandlessonmusic,althoughNōinstrumentalistssometimesappearalsoinKyōgen.Kabukidrama,developedfromthe17thcentury,isanothercomicform,whichincludesdance. ModerntheatricalandmusicaldramahasalsodevelopedinJapaninformssuchasshingekiandtheTakarazukaRevue. Seealso[edit] Theatreportal Antitheatricality AppliedDrama Augustandrama Christiandrama Closetdrama Comedydrama Costumedrama Crimedrama Domesticdrama Dramaschool Dramaticstructure Dramatictheory Dramaannotation Dramaturgy Entertainment Flashdrama Folkplay Heroicdrama Historyoftheatre Hyperdrama Legaldrama Medicaldrama Melodrama Monodrama Mysteryplay Oneactplay Politicaldrama Soapopera Theatreawards Two-hander Versedramaanddramaticverse Well-madeplay Yakshagana Notes[edit] ^Elam(1980,98). ^FrancisFergussonwritesthat"adrama,asdistinguishedfromalyric,isnotprimarilyacompositionintheverbalmedium;thewordsresult,asonemightputit,fromtheunderlyingstructureofincidentandcharacter.AsAristotleremarks,'thepoet,or"maker"shouldbethemakerofplotsratherthanofverses;sinceheisapoetbecauseheimitates,andwhatheimitatesareactions'"(1949,8). ^Wickham(1959,32–41;1969,133;1981,68–69).Thesenseofthecreatorofplaysasa"maker"ratherthana"writer"ispreservedinthewordplaywright.TheTheatre,oneofthefirstpurpose-builtplayhousesinLondon,wasanintentionalreferencetotheLatintermforthatparticularplayhouse,ratherthanatermforthebuildingsingeneral(1967,133).Theword'dramatist'"wasatthattimestillunknownintheEnglishlanguage"(1981,68). ^Banham(1998,894–900). ^Pfister(1977,11). ^abEncyclopaediaBritannica ^Seetheentriesfor"opera","musicaltheatre,American","melodrama"and"Nō"inBanham(1998). ^ManfredbyByron,forexample,isagoodexampleofa"dramaticpoem."Seetheentryon"Byron(GeorgeGeorge)"inBanham(1998). ^Someformsofimprovisation,notablytheCommediadell'arte,improviseonthebasisof'lazzi'orroughoutlinesofscenicaction(seeGordon(1983)andDuchartre(1929)).Allformsofimprovisationtaketheircuefromtheirimmediateresponsetooneanother,theircharacters'situations(whicharesometimesestablishedinadvance),and,often,theirinteractionwiththeaudience.TheclassicformulationsofimprovisationinthetheatreoriginatedwithJoanLittlewoodandKeithJohnstoneintheUKandViolaSpolinintheUS;seeJohnstone(1981)andSpolin(1963). ^Brown(1998,441),Cartledge(1997,3–5),Goldhill(1997,54),andLey(2007,206).Taxidounotesthat"mostscholarsnowcall'Greek'tragedy'Athenian'tragedy,whichishistoricallycorrect"(2004,104).BrownwritesthatancientGreekdrama"wasessentiallythecreationofclassicalAthens:allthedramatistswhowerelaterregardedasclassicswereactiveatAthensinthe5thand4thcenturiesBC(thetimeoftheAtheniandemocracy),andallthesurvivingplaysdatefromthisperiod"(1998,441)."ThedominantcultureofAthensinthefifthcentury",Goldhillwrites,"canbesaidtohaveinventedtheatre"(1997,54). ^BrockettandHildy(2003,13–15)andBanham(1998,441–447). ^Banham(1998,441–444).FormoreinformationontheseancientGreekdramatists,seethearticlescategorisedunder"AncientGreekdramatistsandplaywrights"inWikipedia. ^ThetheorythatPrometheusBoundwasnotwrittenbyAeschyluswouldbringthisnumbertosixdramatistswhoseworksurvives. ^Banham(1998,8)andBrockettandHildy(2003,15–16). ^BrockettandHildy(2003,13,15)andBanham(1998,442). ^BrockettandHildy(2003,18)andBanham(1998,444–445). ^Banham(1998,444–445). ^BrockettandHildy(2003,43). ^BrockettandHildy(2003,36,47). ^BrockettandHildy(2003,43).FormoreinformationontheancientRomandramatists,seethearticlescategorisedunder"AncientRomandramatistsandplaywrights"inWikipedia. ^BrockettandHildy(2003,46–47). ^abcBrockettandHildy(2003,47). ^BrockettandHildy(2003,47–48). ^BrockettandHildy(2003,48–49). ^abcBrockettandHildy(2003,49). ^abBrockettandHildy(2003,48). ^abBrockettandHildy(2003,50). ^BrockettandHildy(2003,49–50). ^BrockettandHildy(2003,76,78).Manychurcheswouldhaveonlyperformedoneortwoliturgicaldramasperyearandalargernumberneverperformedanyatall. ^BrockettandHildy(2003,76). ^abcBrockettandHildy(2003,77). ^Wickham(1981,191;1987,141). ^Bevington(1962,9,11,38,45),Dillon(2006,213),andWickham(1976,195;1981,189–190).InEarlyEnglishStages(1981),WickhampointstotheexistenceofTheInterludeoftheStudentandtheGirlasevidencethattheold-fashionedviewthatcomedybeganinEnglandinthe1550swithGammerGurton'sNeedleandRalphRoisterDoisterismistaken,ignoringasitdoesarichtraditionofmedievalcomicdrama;seeWickham(1981,178). ^BrockettandHildy(2003,86) ^BrockettandHildy(2003,97). ^Spivack(1958,251–303),Bevington(1962,58–61,81–82,87,183),andWeimann(1978,155). ^BrockettandHildy(2003,101–103). ^GeorgeHenryNettleton,ArthurBritishdramatistsfromDrydentoSheridanp.149 ^Hatch,MaryJo(2009).TheThreeFacesofLeadership:Manager,Artist,Priest.JohnWiley&Sons.p. 47. ^The"Chinascene"fromWycherley'splayonYouTube ^TheProvokedWifeissomethingofaRestorationproblemplayinitsattentiontothesubordinatelegalpositionofmarriedwomenandthecomplexitiesof"divorce"andseparation,issuesthathadbeenhighlightedinthemid-1690sbysomenotoriouscasesbeforetheHouseofLords. ^Interconnectedcausesforthisshiftintasteweredemographicchange,theGloriousRevolutionof1688,William'sandMary'sdislikeofthetheatre,andthelawsuitsbroughtagainstplaywrightsbytheSocietyfortheReformationofManners(foundedin1692).WhenJeremyCollierattackedCongreveandVanbrughinhisShortViewoftheImmoralityandProfanenessoftheEnglishStagein1698,hewasconfirmingashiftinaudiencetastethathadalreadytakenplace. ^Williams(1993,25–26)andMoi(2006,17).Moiwritesthat"IbsenisthemostimportantplaywrightwritingafterShakespeare.Heisthefounderofmoderntheater.Hisplaysareworldclassics,stagedoneverycontinent,andstudiedinclassroomseverywhere.Inanygivenyear,therearehundredsofIbsenproductionsintheworld."IbsenitesincludeGeorgeBernardShawandArthurMiller;BrechtiansincludeDarioFo,JoanLittlewood,W.H.AudenPeterWeiss,HeinerMüller,PeterHacks,TonyKushner,CarylChurchill,JohnArden,HowardBrenton,EdwardBond,andDavidHare. ^Moi(2006,1,23–26).Taxidouwrites:"Itisprobablyhistoricallymoreaccurate,althoughmethodologicallylesssatisfactory,toreadtheNaturalistmovementinthetheatreinconjunctionwiththemoreanti-illusionistaestheticsofthetheatresofthesameperiod.Theseinterlockandoverlapinallsortsofcomplicatedways,evenwhentheyarevehementlydenouncingeachother(perhapsparticularlywhen)inthefavouredmodeofthetime,themanifesto"(2007,58). ^Williams(1966)andWright(1989). ^"opera|History&Facts".EncyclopediaBritannica.Retrieved21May2019. ^Lawner,p.16 ^abReid-Walsh,Jacqueline."Pantomime",TheOxfordEncyclopediaofChildren'sLiterature,JackZipes(ed.),OxfordUniversityPress(2006),ISBN 9780195146561 ^Mayer(1969),p.6 ^"TheHistoryofPantomime",It's-Behind-You.com,2002,accessed10February2013 ^Webster'sNewWorldDictionary,WorldPublishingCompany,2ndCollegeEdition,1980,p.1027 ^Gutzwiller(2007). ^Rémy(1954). ^Callery(2001). ^abEncyclopaediaBritannica ^Ehrlich(1974,75–80). ^Richmond,Swann,andZarrilli(1993,12). ^Brandon(1997,70)andRichmond(1998,516). ^Brandon(1997,72)andRichmond(1998,516). ^Brandon(1997,72),Richmond(1998,516),andRichmond,Swann,andZarrilli(1993,12). ^(Neog1980,p. 246)harverror:notarget:CITEREFNeog1980(help) ^Neog,Maheswar(1975).AssameseDramaandTheatre:ASeriesofTwoLecturesDeliveredattheIndianSchoolofDramaandAsianTheatreCentre,NewDelhi,April1962.Neog. ^Neog,Maheswar(1984).Bhaona:TheRitualPlayofAssam.SangeetNatakAcademy. ^Richmond(1998,516)andRichmond,Swann,andZarrilli(1993,13). ^Brandon(1981,xvii)andRichmond(1998,516–517). ^abRichmond(1998,516). ^abcRichmond(1998,517). ^abBrandon(1981,xvii). ^abBanham(1998,1051). ^"BackgroundtoNoh-Kyogen".Archivedfromtheoriginalon15July2005.Retrieved27February2013. 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Gordon,Mel.1983.Lazzi:TheComicRoutinesoftheCommediadell'Arte.NewYork:PerformingArtsJournalPublications.ISBN 0-933826-69-9. Gutzwiller,Kathryn.2007.AGuidetoHellenisticLiterature.London:Blackwell.ISBN 0-631-23322-9. Harsh,PhilipWhaley.1944.AHandbookofClassicalDrama.Stanford:StanfordUP;Oxford:OxfordUP. Johnstone,Keith.1981.Impro:ImprovisationandtheTheatreRev.ed.London:Methuen,2007.ISBN 0-7136-8701-0. Ley,Graham.2006.AShortIntroductiontotheAncientGreekTheater.Rev.ed.ChicagoandLondon:UofChicagoP.ISBN 0-226-47761-4. O'Brien,Nick.2010.StanislavskiInPractise.London:Routledge.ISBN 978-0415568432. O'Brien,Nick.2007.TheTheatricalityofGreekTragedy:PlayingSpaceandChorus.ChicagoandLondon:UofChicagoP.ISBN 0-226-47757-6. Pandey,Sudhakar,andFreyaTaraporewala,eds.1999.StudiesinContemporaryIndia.NewDelhi:Prestige. Pfister,Manfred.1977.TheTheoryandAnalysisofDrama.Trans.JohnHalliday.EuropeanStudiesinEnglishLiteratureSer.Cambridige:CambridgeUniversityPress,1988.ISBN 0-521-42383-X. Rémy,Tristan.1954.Jean-GaspardDeburau.Paris:L’Arche. Rehm,Rush.1992.GreekTragicTheatre.TheatreProductionStudiesser.LondonandNewYork:Routledge.ISBN 0-415-11894-8. Richmond,Farley.1998."India."InBanham(1998,516–525). Richmond,FarleyP.,DariusL.Swann,andPhillipB.Zarrilli,eds.1993.IndianTheatre:TraditionsofPerformance.UofHawaiiP.ISBN 978-0-8248-1322-2. Spivack,Bernard.1958.ShakespeareandtheAllegoryofEvil:TheHistoryofaMetaphorinRelationtohisMajorVillains.NYandLondon:ColumbiaUP.ISBN 0-231-01912-2. Spolin,Viola.1967.ImprovisationfortheTheater.Thirdrev.edEvanston,IINorthwesternUniversityPress,1999.ISBN 0-8101-4008-X. Taxidou,Olga.2004.Tragedy,ModernityandMourning.Edinburgh:EdinburghUP.ISBN 0-7486-1987-9. Wickham,Glynne.1959.EarlyEnglishStages:1300–1660.Vol.1.London:Routledge. Wickham,Glynne.1969.Shakespeare'sDramaticHeritage:CollectedStudiesinMediaeval,TudorandShakespeareanDrama.London:Routledge.ISBN 0-710-06069-6. Wickham,Glynne,ed.1976.EnglishMoralInterludes.London:Dent.ISBN 0-874-71766-3. Wickham,Glynne.1981.EarlyEnglishStages:1300–1660.Vol.3.London:Routledge.ISBN 0-710-00218-1. Wickham,Glynne.1987.TheMedievalTheatre.3rded.Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress.ISBN 0-521-31248-5. Weimann,Robert.1978.ShakespeareandthePopularTraditionintheTheater:StudiesintheSocialDimensionofDramaticFormandFunction.BaltimoreandLondon:TheJohnsHopkinsUniversityPress.ISBN 0-8018-3506-2. Weimann,Robert.2000.Author'sPenandActor'sVoice:PlayingandWritinginShakespeare'sTheatre.Ed.HelenHigbeeandWilliamWest.CambridgeStudiesinRenaissanceLiteratureandCulture.Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress.ISBN 0-521-78735-1. Externallinks[edit] LookupdramainWiktionary,thefreedictionary. WikiversityhaslearningresourcesaboutCollaborative_play_writing Wikibookshasabookonthetopicof:HistoryofWesternTheatre:GreekstoElizabethans Wikibookshasabookonthetopicof:HistoryofWesternTheatre:17thCenturytoNow Greek&RomanMaskTimeline vteHistoryofWesterntheatre Greek Roman Medieval Commediadell'arte EnglishRenaissance SpanishGoldenAge Classicism Neoclassical Restoration Augustan Weimar Romanticism Melodrama 19thcentury Realism Naturalism Modernism Postmodern 20thcentury timeline vteClassicalAtheniandramaGenres Tragedy Comedy Satyrplay Writers Aeschylus Sophocles Euripides Aristophanes Menander Analysis Poetics(335BCE) TheBirthofTragedy(1872) vteRomanandByzantinetheatre Architecture Plautus Terence Seneca vteMedievaltheatre Liturgicaldrama Mysteryplay Moralityplay Elegiaccomedy Farce Masque Pageant vteModerndramaGenres Naturalism Realism Modernism Postmodernism History Historyoftheatre 19thcentury 20thcentury 20th-centurytheatretimeline vteTheatreHistory Greek Roman Medieval Commediadell'arte EnglishRenaissance SpanishGoldenAge FrenchClassicism Neoclassical Restoration Augustan Weimar Romanticism Melodrama Naturalism Realism Modernism Postmodern 19thcentury 20thcentury timeline Types Drama Play Musicaltheatre Comedy Tragedy Improvisation Opera Ballet Regions Persia India Indonesia China Japan Korea Poland Stagecraft/Scenography Cue CurtainCall Rehearsal Stage Theatricalconstraints Theatricalsuperstitions Technicalrehearsal Technicalweek Performance Lightingdesign Sounddesign Setconstruction Theatricalproperty Costumeconstruction PersonnelManagement Stagemanagement Technicaldirector productionmanagement housemanagement companymanagement Technical Carpenter(theatre) Electrician(theatre) Flycrew Make-upartist Propertymaster Pyrotechnician Runningcrew Spotlightoperator Stagehand TheatricalTechnician Technicalcrew Wardrobesupervisor Design Costumedesigner Lightingdesigner Scenicdesigner Sounddesigner Soundengineer Videodesign Runningcrew Callboy Productionmanager Stagemanager Stagehand Technicaldirector Theatricaltechnician Carpenter Flycrew Electrician Lightboardoperator Lightingtechnician Spotlightoperator A2 Soundoperator Propertymaster Dresser Wardrobesupervisor Musicians Musicalensemble Orchestra Pitorchestra Category Commons Wiktionary WikiProject Outlineoftheatre Authoritycontrol:Nationallibraries Israel UnitedStates CzechRepublic Retrievedfrom"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Drama&oldid=1105922382" Categories:DramaHiddencategories:HarvandSfnno-targeterrorsArticleswithshortdescriptionShortdescriptionmatchesWikidataUsedmydatesfromAugust2016UseBritishEnglishfromAugust2016ArticlescontainingAncientGreek(to1453)-languagetextArticlesneedingadditionalreferencesfromApril2016AllarticlesneedingadditionalreferencesArticlesneedingadditionalreferencesfromApril2018ArticlesthatmaycontainoriginalresearchfromDecember2011AllarticlesthatmaycontainoriginalresearchArticleswithJ9UidentifiersArticleswithLCCNidentifiersArticleswithNKCidentifiers Navigationmenu Personaltools NotloggedinTalkContributionsCreateaccountLogin Namespaces ArticleTalk English Views ReadEditViewhistory More Search Navigation MainpageContentsCurrenteventsRandomarticleAboutWikipediaContactusDonate Contribute HelpLearntoeditCommunityportalRecentchangesUploadfile Tools WhatlinkshereRelatedchangesUploadfileSpecialpagesPermanentlinkPageinformationCitethispageWikidataitem Print/export DownloadasPDFPrintableversion Inotherprojects WikimediaCommons Languages AfrikaansAlemannischالعربيةԱրեւմտահայերէնঅসমীয়াAsturianuAzərbaycancaবাংলাBân-lâm-gúБеларускаяБеларуская(тарашкевіца)БългарскиBoarischBosanskiCatalàČeštinaCymraegDanskDeutschDolnoserbskiEestiΕλληνικάEspañolEsperantoEuskaraفارسیFrançaisFryskGaeilgeGaelgGàidhligGalego贛語गोंयचीकोंकणी/GõychiKonknni한국어Հայերենहिन्दीHrvatskiIdoBahasaIndonesiaItalianoעבריתJawaქართულიKriyòlgwiyannenKurdîLatinaLatviešuLietuviųMagyarМакедонскиമലയാളംმარგალურიمصرىBahasaMelayuမြန်မာဘာသာNederlandsनेपालीनेपालभाषा日本語NorskbokmålNorsknynorskਪੰਜਾਬੀپنجابیPolskiPortuguêsRomânăРусиньскыйРусскийShqipසිංහලSimpleEnglishسنڌيSlovenčinaSlovenščinaСрпски/srpskiSrpskohrvatski/српскохрватскиSundaSuomiSvenskaTagalogதமிழ்ไทยТоҷикӣTürkçeУкраїнськаاردوTiếngViệtWinaray吴语ייִדיש粵語中文 Editlinks