Mesozoic - Wikipedia

The Mesozoic was a time of significant tectonic, climatic, and evolutionary activity. The era witnessed the gradual rifting of the supercontinent Pangaea into ... Mesozoic FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia Jumptonavigation Jumptosearch SeconderaofthePhanerozoicEon:~252–66millionyearsago Mesozoic251.902±0.024–66.0Ma Pha. Proterozoic Archean Had'n Chronology−260 —–−240 —–−220 —–−200 —–−180 —–−160 —–−140 —–−120 —–−100 —–−80 —–−60 —PhanerozoicPaleozoicMesozoicCenozoicTriassicJurassicCretaceous  AnapproximatetimescaleofkeyMesozoicevents.Axisscale:millionsofyearsago.EtymologyNameformalityFormalNickname(s)AgeofReptiles,AgeofConifersUsageinformationCelestialbodyEarthRegionalusageGlobal(ICS)Timescale(s)usedICSTimeScaleDefinitionChronologicalunitEraStratigraphicunitErathemTimespanformalityFormalLowerboundarydefinitionFirstappearanceoftheConodontHindeodusparvus.LowerboundaryGSSPMeishan,Zhejiang,China31°04′47″N119°42′21″E/31.0798°N119.7058°E/31.0798;119.7058GSSPratified2001UpperboundarydefinitionIridiumenrichedlayerassociatedwithamajormeteoriteimpactandsubsequentK-Pgextinctionevent.UpperboundaryGSSPElKefSection,ElKef,Tunisia36°09′13″N8°38′55″E/36.1537°N8.6486°E/36.1537;8.6486GSSPratified1991 TheMesozoicEra(/ˌmɛz.əˈzoʊ.ɪk,ˌmɛz.oʊ-,ˌmɛs-,ˌmiː.zə-,-zoʊ-,ˌmiː.sə-,-soʊ-/mez-ə-ZOH-ik,mez-oh-,mess-,mee-zə-,-⁠zoh-,mee-sə-,-⁠soh-)[1][2],alsocalledtheAgeofReptilesandtheAgeofConifers,[3]isthesecond-to-lasteraofEarth'sgeologicalhistory,lastingfromabout252 to 66millionyearsagoandcomprisingtheTriassic,JurassicandCretaceousPeriods.Itischaracterizedbythedominanceofarchosaurianreptiles,likethedinosaurs;anabundanceofconifersandferns;ahotgreenhouseclimate;andthetectonicbreak-upofPangaea.TheMesozoicisthemiddleofthreeerassincecomplexlifeevolved:thePaleozoic,theMesozoic,andtheCenozoic. TheerabeganinthewakeofthePermian–Triassicextinctionevent,thelargestwell-documentedmassextinctioninEarth'shistory,andendedwiththeCretaceous–Paleogeneextinctionevent,anothermassextinctionwhosevictimsincludedthenon-aviandinosaurs,pterosaurs,mosasaurs,andplesiosaurs.TheMesozoicwasatimeofsignificanttectonic,climatic,andevolutionaryactivity.TheerawitnessedthegradualriftingofthesupercontinentPangaeaintoseparatelandmassesthatwouldmoveintotheircurrentpositionsduringthenextera.TheclimateoftheMesozoicwasvaried,alternatingbetweenwarmingandcoolingperiods.Overall,however,theEarthwashotterthanitistoday.DinosaursfirstappearedintheMid-Triassic,andbecamethedominantterrestrialvertebratesintheLateTriassicorEarlyJurassic,occupyingthispositionforabout150or135 millionyearsuntiltheirdemiseattheendoftheCretaceous.ArchaicbirdsappearedintheJurassic,havingevolvedfromabranchoftheropoddinosaurs,thentruetoothlessbirdsappearedintheCretaceous.ThefirstmammalsalsoappearedduringtheMesozoic,butwouldremainsmall—lessthan15 kg(33 lb)—untiltheCenozoic.ThefloweringplantsappearedintheearlyCretaceousPeriodandwouldrapidlydiversifythroughouttheendoftheera,replacingconifersandothergymnospermsasthedominantgroupofplants. Contents 1Naming 2Geologicperiods 2.1Triassic 2.2Jurassic 2.3Cretaceous 3Paleogeographyandtectonics 4Climate 5Life 5.1Flora 5.2Fauna 6Seealso 7References 8Externallinks Naming[edit] Thephrase"AgeofReptiles"wasintroducedbythe19thcenturypaleontologistGideonMantellwhovieweditasdominatedbydiapsidssuchasIguanodon,Megalosaurus,Plesiosaurus,andPterodactylus. Thecurrentnamewasproposedin1840bytheBritishgeologistJohnPhillips(1800–1874)."Mesozoic"literallymeans'middlelife',derivingfromtheGreekprefixmeso-(μεσο-'between')andzōon(ζῷον'animal,livingbeing').[4][5]Inthisway,theMesozoiciscomparabletotheCenozoic(lit. 'newlife')andPaleozoic('oldlife')ErasaswellastheProterozoic('earlierlife')Eon. TheMesozoicErawasoriginallydescribedasthe"secondary"era,followingthe"primary"(Paleozoic),andprecedingtheTertiary.[6] Geologicperiods[edit] FollowingthePaleozoic,theMesozoicextendedroughly186 millionyears,from251.902 to 66millionyearsagowhentheCenozoicErabegan.Thistimeframeisseparatedintothreegeologicperiods.Fromoldesttoyoungest: Triassic(251.902 to 201.3millionyearsago) Jurassic(201.3 to 145millionyearsago) Cretaceous(145 to 66millionyearsago) ThelowerboundaryoftheMesozoicissetbythePermian–Triassicextinctionevent,duringwhichithasbeenestimatedthatupto90-96%ofmarinespeciesbecameextinct[7]althoughthoseapproximationshavebeenbroughtintoquestionwithsomepaleontologistsestimatingtheactualnumbersaslowas81%.[8]Itisalsoknownasthe"GreatDying"becauseitisconsideredthelargestmassextinctionintheEarth'shistory.TheupperboundaryoftheMesozoicissetattheCretaceous–Paleogeneextinctionevent(orK–Pgextinctionevent[9]),whichmayhavebeencausedbyanasteroidimpactorthatcreatedChicxulubCraterontheYucatánPeninsula.TowardstheLateCretaceous,largevolcaniceruptionsarealsobelievedtohavecontributedtotheCretaceous–Paleogeneextinctionevent.Approximately50%ofallgenerabecameextinct,includingallofthenon-aviandinosaurs. Triassic[edit] TheTriassicrangesroughlyfrom252 millionto201 millionyearsago,precedingtheJurassicPeriod.TheperiodisbracketedbetweenthePermian–TriassicextinctioneventandtheTriassic–Jurassicextinctionevent,twoofthe"bigfive",anditisdividedintothreemajorepochs:Early,Middle,andLateTriassic.[10] TheEarlyTriassic,about252to247 millionyearsago,wasdominatedbydesertsintheinteriorofthePangaeasupercontinent.TheEarthhadjustwitnessedamassivedie-offinwhich95%ofalllifebecameextinct,andthemostcommonvertebratelifeonlandwereLystrosaurus,labyrinthodonts,andEuparkeriaalongwithmanyothercreaturesthatmanagedtosurvivethePermianextinction.TemnospondylsevolvedduringthistimeandwouldbethedominantpredatorformuchoftheTriassic.[11][failedverification][self-publishedsource]Plateosaurus(aprosauropod) TheMiddleTriassic,from247to237 millionyearsago,featuredthebeginningsofthebreakupofPangaeaandtheopeningoftheTethysOcean.EcosystemshadrecoveredfromthePermianextinction.Algae,sponge,corals,andcrustaceansallhadrecovered,andnewaquaticreptilesevolved,suchasichthyosaursandnothosaurs.Onland,pineforestsflourished,asdidgroupsofinsectslikemosquitoesandfruitflies.Reptilesbegantogetbiggerandbigger,andthefirstcrocodiliansanddinosaursevolved,whichsparkedcompetitionwiththelargeamphibiansthathadpreviouslyruledthefreshwaterworld,respectivelymammal-likereptilesonland.[12] FollowingthebloomoftheMiddleTriassic,theLateTriassic,from237to201 millionyearsago,featuredfrequentheatspellsandmoderateprecipitation(10–20inchesperyear).Therecentwarmingledtoaboomofdinosaurianevolutiononlandasthoseonebegantoseparatefromeachother(Nyasasaurusfrom243to210 millionyearsago,approximately235–30ma,someofthemseparatedintoSauropodomorphs,TheropodsandHerrerasaurids),aswellasthefirstpterosaurs.DuringtheLateTriassic,someadvancedcynodontsgaverisetothefirstMammaliaformes.Allthisclimaticchange,however,resultedinalargedie-outknownastheTriassic–Jurassicextinctionevent,inwhichmanyarchosaurs(excludingpterosaurs,dinosaursandcrocodylomorphs),mostsynapsids,andalmostalllargeamphibiansbecameextinct,aswellas34%ofmarinelife,intheEarth'sfourthmassextinctionevent.Thecauseisdebatable;[13][14]floodbasalteruptionsattheCentralAtlanticmagmaticprovinceiscitedasonepossiblecause. Jurassic[edit] SericipterusTheJurassicrangesfrom200 millionyearsto145 millionyearsagoandfeaturesthreemajorepochs:TheEarlyJurassic,theMiddleJurassic,andtheLateJurassic.[15] TheEarlyJurassicspansfrom200to175 millionyearsago.[15]TheclimatewastropicalandmuchmorehumidthantheTriassic,asaresultofthelargeseasappearingbetweenthelandmasses.Intheoceans,plesiosaurs,ichthyosaursandammoniteswereabundant.Onland,dinosaursandotherarchosaursstakedtheirclaimasthedominantrace,withtheropodssuchasDilophosaurusatthetopofthefoodchain.Thefirsttruecrocodilesevolved,pushingthelargeamphibianstonearextinction.All-in-all,archosaursrosetoruletheworld.Meanwhile,thefirsttruemammalsevolved,remainingrelativelysmallbutspreadingwidely;theJurassicCastorocauda,forexample,hadadaptationsforswimming,diggingandcatchingfish.Fruitafossor,fromthelateJurassicPeriodabout150 millionyearsago,wasaboutthesizeofachipmunk,anditsteeth,forelimbsandbacksuggestthatitdugopenthenestsofsocialinsects(probablytermites,asantshadnotyetappeared).ThefirstmultituberculateslikeRugosodonevolved,whilevolaticotherianstooktotheskies. TheMiddleJurassicspansfrom175to163 millionyearsago.[15]Duringthisepoch,dinosaursflourishedashugeherdsofsauropods,suchasBrachiosaurusandDiplodocus,filledthefernprairies,chasedbymanynewpredatorssuchasAllosaurus.Coniferforestsmadeupalargeportionoftheforests.Intheoceans,plesiosaurswerequitecommon,andichthyosaursflourished.Thisepochwasthepeakofthereptiles.[16][failedverification][self-publishedsource]Stegosaurus TheLateJurassicspansfrom163to145 millionyearsago.[15]Duringthisepoch,thefirstavialans,likeArchaeopteryx,evolvedfromsmallcoelurosauriandinosaurs.TheincreaseinsealevelsopeneduptheAtlanticseaway,whichhasgrowncontinuallylargeruntiltoday.Thefurtherseparationofthecontinentsgaveopportunityforthediversificationofnewdinosaurs. Cretaceous[edit] TheCretaceousisthelongestperiodoftheMesozoic,buthasonlytwoepochs:EarlyandLateCretaceous.[17]Tylosaurus(amosasaur)huntingXiphactinus TheEarlyCretaceousspansfrom145to100 millionyearsago.[17]TheEarlyCretaceoussawtheexpansionofseaways,andasaresult,thedeclineand/orextinctionofLaurasiansauropods.Someisland-hoppingdinosaurs,likeEustreptospondylus,evolvedtocopewiththecoastalshallowsandsmallislandsofancientEurope.OtherdinosaursroseuptofilltheemptyspacethattheJurassic-Cretaceousextinctionleftbehind,suchasCarcharodontosaurusandSpinosaurus.[citationneeded]Seasonscamebackintoeffectandthepolesgotseasonallycolder,butsomedinosaursstillinhabitedthepolarforestsyearround,suchasLeaellynasauraandMuttaburrasaurus.Thepolesweretoocoldforcrocodiles,andbecamethelaststrongholdforlargeamphibianslikeKoolasuchus.PterosaursgotlargerasgeneralikeTapejaraandOrnithocheirusevolved.Mammalscontinuedtoexpandtheirrange:eutriconodontsproducedfairlylarge,wolverine-likepredatorslikeRepenomamusandGobiconodon,earlytheriansbegantoexpandintometatheriansandeutherians,andcimolodontmultituberculateswentontobecomecommoninthefossilrecord. TheLateCretaceousspansfrom100to66 millionyearsago.TheLateCretaceousfeaturedacoolingtrendthatwouldcontinueintheCenozoicEra.Eventually,tropicswererestrictedtotheequatorandareasbeyondthetropiclinesexperiencedextremeseasonalchangesinweather.Dinosaursstillthrived,asnewtaxasuchasTyrannosaurus,Ankylosaurus,Triceratopsandhadrosaursdominatedthefoodweb.Intheoceans,mosasaursruled,fillingtheroleoftheichthyosaurs,which,afterdeclining,haddisappearedintheCenomanian-Turonianboundaryevent.Thoughpliosaurshadgoneextinctinthesameevent,long-neckedplesiosaurssuchasElasmosauruscontinuedtothrive.Floweringplants,possiblyappearingasfarbackastheTriassic,becametrulydominantforthefirsttime.PterosaursintheLateCretaceousdeclinedforpoorlyunderstoodreasons,thoughthismightbeduetotendenciesofthefossilrecord,astheirdiversityseemstobemuchhigherthanpreviouslythought.Birdsbecameincreasinglycommonanddiversifiedintoavarietyofenantiornitheandornithurineforms.Thoughmostlysmall,marinehesperornithesbecamerelativelylargeandflightless,adaptedtolifeintheopensea.MetatheriansandprimitiveeutherianalsobecamecommonandevenproducedlargeandspecialisedgeneralikeDidelphodonandSchowalteria.Still,thedominantmammalsweremultituberculates,cimolodontsinthenorthandgondwanatheresinthesouth.AttheendoftheCretaceous,theDeccantrapsandothervolcaniceruptionswerepoisoningtheatmosphere.Asthiscontinued,itisthoughtthatalargemeteorsmashedintoearth66 millionyearsago,creatingtheChicxulubCraterinaneventknownastheK-PgExtinction(formerlyK-T),thefifthandmostrecentmassextinctionevent,inwhich75%oflifebecameextinct,includingallnon-aviandinosaurs.[18]Everyanimalover10kilogramsbecameextinct.[19][20] Paleogeographyandtectonics[edit] Comparedtothevigorousconvergentplatemountain-buildingofthelatePaleozoic,Mesozoictectonicdeformationwascomparativelymild.ThesolemajorMesozoicorogenyoccurredinwhatisnowtheArctic,creatingtheInnuitianorogeny,theBrooksRange,theVerkhoyanskandCherskiyRangesinSiberia,andtheKhinganMountainsinManchuria. ThisorogenywasrelatedtotheopeningoftheArcticOceanandsubductionoftheNorthChinaandSiberiancratonsunderthePacificOcean.[21]Incontrast,theerafeaturedthedramaticriftingofthesupercontinentPangaea,whichgraduallysplitintoanortherncontinent,Laurasia,andasoutherncontinent,Gondwana.ThiscreatedthepassivecontinentalmarginthatcharacterizesmostoftheAtlanticcoastline(suchasalongtheU.S.EastCoast)today.[22] Bytheendoftheera,thecontinentshadriftedintonearlytheirpresentforms,thoughnottheirpresentpositions.LaurasiabecameNorthAmericaandEurasia,whileGondwanasplitintoSouthAmerica,Africa,Australia,AntarcticaandtheIndiansubcontinent,whichcollidedwiththeAsianplateduringtheCenozoic,givingrisetotheHimalayas. Climate[edit] TheTriassicwasgenerallydry,atrendthatbeganinthelateCarboniferous,andhighlyseasonal,especiallyintheinteriorofPangaea.Lowsealevelsmayhavealsoexacerbatedtemperatureextremes.Withitshighspecificheatcapacity,wateractsasatemperature-stabilizingheatreservoir,andlandareasnearlargebodiesofwater—especiallyoceans—experiencelessvariationintemperature.BecausemuchofPangaea'slandwasdistantfromitsshores,temperaturesfluctuatedgreatly,andtheinteriorprobablyincludedexpansivedeserts.Abundantredbedsandevaporitessuchashalitesupporttheseconclusions,butsomeevidencesuggeststhegenerallydryclimateofwaspunctuatedbyepisodesofincreasedrainfall.[23]ThemostimportanthumidepisodesweretheCarnianPluvialEventandoneintheRhaetian,afewmillionyearsbeforetheTriassic–Jurassicextinctionevent. SealevelsbegantoriseduringtheJurassic,probablycausedbyanincreaseinseafloorspreading.Theformationofnewcrustbeneaththesurfacedisplacedoceanwatersbyasmuchas200 m(656 ft)abovetoday'ssealevel,floodingcoastalareas.Furthermore,Pangaeabegantoriftintosmallerdivisions,creatingnewshorelinearoundtheTethysOcean.Temperaturescontinuedtoincrease,thenbegantostabilize.Humidityalsoincreasedwiththeproximityofwater,anddesertsretreated. TheclimateoftheCretaceousislesscertainandmorewidelydisputed.Probably,higherlevelsofcarbondioxideintheatmospherearethoughttohavealmosteliminatedthenorth–southtemperaturegradient:temperatureswereaboutthesameacrosstheplanet,andabout10°Chigherthantoday.Thecirculationofoxygentothedeepoceanmayalsohavebeendisrupted,preventingthedecompositionoflargevolumesoforganicmatter,whichwaseventuallydepositedas"blackshale".[24][25] DifferentstudieshavecometodifferentconclusionsabouttheamountofoxygenintheatmosphereduringdifferentpartsoftheMesozoic,withsomeconcludingoxygenlevelswerelowerthanthecurrentlevel(about21%)throughouttheMesozoic,[26][27]someconcludingtheywerelowerintheTriassicandpartoftheJurassicbuthigherintheCretaceous,[28][29][30]andsomeconcludingtheywerehigherthroughoutmostoralloftheTriassic,JurassicandCretaceous.[31][32] Life[edit] Flora[edit] ConiferswerethedominantterrestrialplantsformostoftheMesozoic,withgrassbecomingwidespreadintheLateCretaceous.FloweringplantsappearedlateintheerabutdidnotbecomewidespreaduntiltheCenozoic. Thedominantlandplantspeciesofthetimeweregymnosperms,whicharevascular,cone-bearing,non-floweringplantssuchasconifersthatproduceseedswithoutacoating.Thiscontrastswiththeearth'scurrentflora,inwhichthedominantlandplantsintermsofnumberofspeciesareangiosperms.TheearliestmembersofthegenusGinkgofirstappearedduringtheMiddleJurassic.Thisgenusisrepresentedtodaybyasinglespecies,Ginkgobiloba.TheextantgenusSequoiaisbelievedtohaveevolvedintheMesozoic.[33]Bennettitales,anextinctgroupofgymnospermswithfoliagesuperficiallyresemblingthatofcycadsgainedaglobaldistributionduringtheLateTriassic,andrepresentedoneofthemostcommongroupsofMesozoicseedplants.[34] FloweringplantsradiatedduringtheearlyCretaceous,firstinthetropics,buttheeventemperaturegradientallowedthemtospreadtowardthepolesthroughouttheperiod.BytheendoftheCretaceous,angiospermsdominatedtreeflorasinmanyareas,althoughsomeevidencesuggeststhatbiomasswasstilldominatedbycycadsandfernsuntilaftertheCretaceous–Paleogeneextinction.Someplantspecieshaddistributionsthatweremarkedlydifferentfromsucceedingperiods;forexample,theSchizeales,afernorder,wereskewedtotheNorthernHemisphereintheMesozoic,butarenowbetterrepresentedintheSouthernHemisphere.[35] Fauna[edit] DinosaurswerethedominantterrestrialvertebratesthroughoutmuchoftheMesozoic. TheextinctionofnearlyallanimalspeciesattheendofthePermianPeriodallowedfortheradiationofmanynewlifeforms.Inparticular,theextinctionofthelargeherbivorouspareiasaursandcarnivorousgorgonopsiansleftthoseecologicalnichesempty.Somewerefilledbythesurvivingcynodontsanddicynodonts,thelatterofwhichsubsequentlybecameextinct. Recentresearchindicatesthatittookmuchlongerforthereestablishmentofcomplexecosystemswithhighbiodiversity,complexfoodwebs,andspecializedanimalsinavarietyofniches,beginninginthemid-Triassic4millionto6millionyearsaftertheextinction,[36]andnotfullyproliferateduntil30millionyearsaftertheextinction.[37]Animallifewasthendominatedbyvariousarchosaurs:dinosaurs,pterosaurs,andaquaticreptilessuchasichthyosaurs,plesiosaurs,andmosasaurs. TheclimaticchangesofthelateJurassicandCretaceousfavoredfurtheradaptiveradiation.TheJurassicwastheheightofarchosaurdiversity,andthefirstbirdsandeutherianmammalsalsoappeared.Somehavearguedthatinsectsdiversifiedinsymbiosiswithangiosperms,becauseinsectanatomy,especiallythemouthparts,seemsparticularlywell-suitedforfloweringplants.However,allmajorinsectmouthpartsprecededangiosperms,andinsectdiversificationactuallyslowedwhentheyarrived,sotheiranatomyoriginallymusthavebeensuitedforsomeotherpurpose.[citationneeded] Seealso[edit]  Mesozoicportal References[edit] ^Jones,Daniel(2003)[1917],PeterRoach;JamesHartmann;JaneSetter(eds.),EnglishPronouncingDictionary,Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress,ISBN 978-3-12-539683-8 ^"Mesozoic".Dictionary.comUnabridged(Online).n.d. ^Dean,DennisR.(1999).GideonMantellandtheDiscoveryofDinosaurs.CambridgeUniversityPress.pp. 97–98.ISBN 978-0521420488. ^See: Phillips,John(1840)."Palæozoicseries".PennyCyclopaediaoftheSocietyfortheDiffusionofUsefulKnowledge.Vol. 17.London:CharlesKnightandCo.pp. 153–54."Asmanysystemsorcombinationsoforganicformsasareclearlytraceableinthestratifiedcrustoftheglobe,somanycorrespondingterms(asPalæozoic,Mesozoic,Kainozoic,&c.)maybemade,…" Wilmarth,MaryGrace(1925).Bulletin769:TheGeologicTimeClassificationoftheUnitedStatesGeologicalSurveyComparedWithOtherClassifications,accompaniedbytheoriginaldefinitionsofera,periodandepochterms.Washington,D.C.:U.S.GovernmentPrintingOffice.p. 9. ^"Mesozoic".OnlineEtymologyDictionary. ^Tang,CarolMarie."MesozoicEra".EncyclopædiaBritannica.EncyclopædiaBritannica.Retrieved5September2019. ^BentonMJ(2005)."Chapter8:Life'sBiggestChallenge".Whenlifenearlydied:thegreatestmassextinctionofalltime.London:Thames&Hudson.ISBN 978-0-500-28573-2.[page needed] 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^Becker,Luann(2002)."RepeatedBlows".ScientificAmerican.286(3):76–83.Bibcode:2002SciAm.286c..76B.doi:10.1038/scientificamerican0302-76.PMID 11857903. ^"Cretaceous".UniversityofCalifornia. ^ElizabethHowell(3February2015)."K-TExtinctionevent".UniverseToday. ^SeeHughes,T.;“ThecaseforcreationoftheNorthPacificOceanduringtheMesozoicEra"inPalaeogeography,Palaeoclimatology,Palaeoecology;Volume18,Issue1,August1975,pp.1–43 ^Stanley,StevenM.EarthSystemHistory.NewYork:W.H.FreemanandCompany,1999.ISBN 0-7167-2882-6 ^Preto,N.;Kustatscher,E.;Wignall,P.B.(2010)."Triassicclimates–Stateoftheartandperspectives".Palaeogeography,Palaeoclimatology,Palaeoecology.290(1–4):1–10.Bibcode:2010PPP...290....1P.doi:10.1016/j.palaeo.2010.03.015. ^Leckie,R.Mark;Bralower,TimothyJ.;Cashman,Richard(September2002)."Oceanicanoxiceventsandplanktonevolution:Bioticresponsetotectonicforcingduringthemid-Cretaceous:OCEANICANOXICEVENTSANDPLANKTONEVOLUTION".Paleoceanography.17(3):13–1–13–29.doi:10.1029/2001PA000623. ^Turgeon,StevenC.;Creaser,RobertA.(17July2008)."Cretaceousoceanicanoxicevent2triggeredbyamassivemagmaticepisode".Nature.454(7202):323–326.Bibcode:2008Natur.454..323T.doi:10.1038/nature07076.PMID 18633415.S2CID 4315155. ^RobertA.Berner,JohnM.VandenBrooksandPeterD.Ward,2007,OxygenandEvolution.Science27April2007,Vol.316no.5824pp.557–58.Agraphshowingthereconstructionfromthispapercanbefoundhere,fromthewebpagePaleoclimate–TheHistoryofClimateChange. ^BernerR.A.2006GEOCARBSULF:acombinedmodelforPhanerozoicatmosphericO2andCO2.Geochim.Cosmochim.Acta70,5653–64.SeethedottedlineinFig.1ofAtmosphericoxygenlevelandtheevolutionofinsectbodysizebyJonF.Harrison,AlexanderKaiserandJohnM.VandenBrooks ^Berner,RobertA.,2009,Phanerozoicatmosphericoxygen:NewresultsusingtheGEOCARBSULFmodel.Am.J.Sci.309no.7,603–06.Agraphshowingthereconstructedlevelsinthispapercanbefoundonp.31ofthebookLivingDinosaursbyGarethDykeandGaryKaiser. ^BernerR.A.,CanfieldD.E.1989Anewmodelforatmosphericoxygenoverphanerozoictime.Am.J.Sci.289,333–61.SeethesolidlineinFig.1ofAtmosphericoxygenlevelandtheevolutionofinsectbodysizebyJonF.Harrison,AlexanderKaiserandJohnM.VandenBrooks ^Berner,R,etal.,2003,Phanerozoicatmosphericoxygen,Annu.Rev.EarthPlanet.Sci.,V,31,p.105–34.SeethegraphnearthebottomofthewebpagePhanerozoicEonArchived27April2013attheWaybackMachine ^Glasspool,I.J.,Scott,A.C.,2010,Phanerozoicconcentrationsofatmosphericoxygenreconstructedfromsedimentarycharcoal,NatureGeosciences,3,627–30 ^BergmanN.M.,LentonT.M.,WatsonA.J.2004COPSE:anewmodelofbiogeochemicalcyclingoverPhanaerozoictime.Am.J.Sci.304,397–437.SeethedashedlineinFig.1ofAtmosphericoxygenlevelandtheevolutionofinsectbodysizebyJonF.Harrison,AlexanderKaiserandJohnM.VandenBrooks ^StanBaducci.MesozoicPlants.. ^Blomenkemper,Patrick;Bäumer,Robert;Backer,Malte;AbuHamad,Abdalla;Wang,Jun;Kerp,Hans;Bomfleur,Benjamin(26March2021)."BennettitaleanLeavesFromthePermianofEquatorialPangea—TheEarlyRadiationofanIconicMesozoicGymnospermGroup".FrontiersinEarthScience.9:652699.Bibcode:2021FrEaS...9..162B.doi:10.3389/feart.2021.652699.ISSN 2296-6463. ^C.MichaelHogan.2010.Fern.EncyclopediaofEarth.NationalcouncilforScienceandtheEnvironmentArchived9November2011attheWaybackMachine.Washington,DC ^Lehrmann,D.J.,Ramezan,J.,Bowring,S.A.;et al.(December2006)."Timingofrecoveryfromtheend-Permianextinction:GeochronologicandbiostratigraphicconstraintsfromsouthChina".Geology.34(12):1053–56.Bibcode:2006Geo....34.1053L.doi:10.1130/G22827A.1.{{citejournal}}:CS1maint:multiplenames:authorslist(link) ^Sahney,S.&Benton,M.J.(2008)."Recoveryfromthemostprofoundmassextinctionofalltime".ProceedingsoftheRoyalSocietyB:BiologicalSciences.275(1636):759–65.doi:10.1098/rspb.2007.1370.PMC 2596898.PMID 18198148. BritishMesozoicFossils,1983,TheNaturalHistoryMuseum,London. Externallinks[edit] Mesozoic(chronostratigraphyscale) Wikisourcehasoriginalworksonthetopic:Mesozoic WikimediaCommonshasmediarelatedtoMesozoic. vteGeologicalhistoryofEarthCenozoicEra(66.0Ma–present)Quaternary(2.58Ma–present) Pleistocene(2.58Ma–11.8ka) Holocene(11.8ka–present) Neogene(23.0–2.58Ma) Miocene(23.0–5.33Ma) Pliocene(5.33–2.59Ma) Paleogene(66.0–23.0Ma) Paleocene(66.0–56.0Ma) Eocene(56.0–33.9Ma) Oligocene(33.9–23.0Ma) MesozoicEra(252–66.0Ma)Cretaceous(145–66.0Ma) Early(145–100Ma) Late(100–66.0Ma) Jurassic(201–145Ma) Early(201–174Ma) Middle(174–164Ma) Late(164–145Ma) Triassic(252–201Ma) Early(252–247Ma) Middle(247–237Ma) Late(237–201Ma) PaleozoicEra(539–252Ma)Permian(252–299Ma) Cisuralian(299–272Ma) Guadalupian(272–260Ma) Lopingian(260–252Ma) Carboniferous(359Ma–299) Mississippian(359–323Ma) Pennsylvanian(323–299Ma) Devonian(419–359Ma) Silurian(444–419Ma) Llandovery(444–433Ma) Wenlock(433–427Ma) Ludlow(427–423Ma) Pridoli(423–419Ma) Ordovician(485–444Ma) Cambrian(539–485Ma) Terreneuvian(539–521Ma) Series2(521–509Ma) Miaolingian(509–497Ma) Furongian(497–485Ma) ProterozoicEon(2.5Ga–539Ma)Neoproterozoic(1Ga–539Ma) Tonian(1Ga–720Ma) Cryogenian(720–635Ma) Ediacaran(635–539Ma) Mesoproterozoic(1.6Ga–1) Calymmian(1.6–1.4Ga) Ectasian(1.4–1.2Ga) Stenian(1.2Ga–1) Paleoproterozoic(2.5–1.6Ga) Siderian(2.5–2.3Ga) Rhyacian(2.3–2.05Ga) Orosirian(2.05–1.8Ga) Statherian(1.8–1.6Ga) ArcheanEon(4–2.5Ga) Eoarchean(4–3.6Ga) Paleoarchean(3.6–3.2Ga) Mesoarchean(3.2–2.8Ga) Neoarchean(2.8–2.5Ga) HadeanEon(4.6–4Ga) ka=kiloannum(thousandsyearsago);Ma=megaannum(millionsyearsago);Ga=gigaannum(billionsyearsago). 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