Damages - Wikipedia

At common law, damages are a remedy in the form of a monetary award to be paid to a claimant as compensation for loss or injury. ... To warrant the award, the ... Damages FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia Jumptonavigation Jumptosearch Legaltermforcompensationawardedforlossorinjury Forotheruses,seeDamages(disambiguation). PartofthecommonlawseriesTortlaw Trespasstotheperson Assault Battery Falseimprisonment Intentionalinflictionofemotionaldistress Propertytorts Trespass land chattels Conversion Dignitarytorts Appropriation Defamation Falselight Slander Libel Invasionofprivacy IntrusiononSeclusion Breachofconfidence Abuseofprocess Maliciousprosecution Sexualtorts Alienationofaffections Criminalconversation Seduction Breachofpromise Negligenttorts Negligentinflictionofemotionaldistress Employment-related Entrustment Malpractice legal medical Principlesofnegligence Dutyofcare Trespassers Licensees Invitees Standardofcare Reasonableperson Proximatecause Resipsaloquitur Restitutioadintegrum Rescuedoctrine Dutytorescue Comparativeresponsibility Contributorynegligence Attractivenuisance Strictandabsoluteliability Productliability Ultrahazardousactivity M.C.Mehtav.UnionofIndia Deeppockets Nuisance Publicnuisance RylandsvFletcher Economictorts Fraud Tortiousinterference Conspiracy Restraintoftrade Defenses Assumptionofrisk Consent Necessity Statuteoflimitations Self-defense Defenseofothers Defenseofproperty Shopkeeper'sprivilege Neutralreportage Liability Intentionaltorts Lastclearchance Eggshellskull Vicariousliability Respondeatsuperior Volentinonfitinjuria Exturpicausanonorituractio Jointandseveralliability Marketshareliability Transferredintent Remedies Damages Punitive Special Incidental Injunction Tracing Detinue Replevin Trover Othertopicsintortlaw Tortreform Non-economicdamagescaps Quasi-tort Delict(civillawequivalent) Conflictoftortlaws Privateattorneygeneral Classaction Byjurisdiction India Australia China Mainlandandhistorical RepublicofChina Europe EnglandandWales Japan Canada America Othercommonlawareas Contracts Criminallaw Evidence Property Wills,trusts,andestates  Lawportalvte Atcommonlaw,damagesarearemedyintheformofamonetaryawardtobepaidtoaclaimantascompensationforlossorinjury.[1]Towarranttheaward,theclaimantmustshowthatabreachofdutyhascausedforeseeableloss.Toberecognisedatlaw,thelossmustinvolvedamagetoproperty,ormentalorphysicalinjury;pureeconomiclossisrarelyrecognisedfortheawardofdamages.[2] Compensatorydamagesarefurthercategorizedintospecialdamages,whichareeconomiclossessuchaslossofearnings,propertydamageandmedicalexpenses,andgeneraldamages,whicharenon-economicdamagessuchaspainandsufferingandemotionaldistress.[3]Ratherthanbeingcompensatory,[4]atcommonlawdamagesmayinsteadbenominal,contemptuousorexemplary.[5] Contents 1History 2Proofofdamages 2.1Proximatecause 2.2Experttestimony 3Compensatorydamages 3.1Quantum(measure)ofdamages 3.2Specialdamages 3.2.1Incidentalandconsequentiallosses 3.2.2Breachofcontractduty-(excontract) 3.2.3Breachoftortduty-(exdelicto) 3.3Generaldamages 4Statutorydamages 5Nominaldamages 5.1Contemptuousdamages 6Punitivedamages(non-compensatory) 6.1Aggravateddamages 7Restitutionaryordisgorgementdamages 8Legalcosts 9Damagesinpersonalinjurycases 9.1Theageoftheclient 9.2Thenatureandextentoftheinjuriessustained 9.3Personalattributesandfortitudeoftheclient 10Seealso 11Notes 12Furtherreading 13Externallinks History[edit] AmongtheSaxons,amonetaryvaluecalledaweregildwasassignedtoeveryhumanbeingandeverypieceofpropertyintheSalicCode.Ifpropertywasstolenorsomeonewasinjuredorkilled,theguiltypersonhadtopaytheweregildasrestitutiontothevictim'sfamilyortotheowneroftheproperty. Proofofdamages[edit] Judicialremedies Legalremedies(Damages) Punitivedamages Incidentaldamages Consequentialdamages Liquidateddamages Reliancedamages Statutorydamages Trebledamages Equitableremedies Specificperformance Accountofprofits Constructivetrust Injunction Restitution Rescission Rectification Declaratoryrelief Relatedissues Adequateremedy Electionofremedies Provisionalremedy Tracing Courtcosts vte Proximatecause[edit] Mainarticle:Proximatecause Recoveryofdamagesbyaplaintiffinlawsuitissubjecttothelegalprinciplethatdamagesmustbeproximatelycausedbythewrongfulconductofthedefendant.Thisisknownastheprincipleofproximatecause.Thisprinciplegovernstherecoveryofallcompensatorydamages,whethertheunderlyingclaimisbasedoncontract,tort,orboth.[6]Damagesarelikelytobelimitedtothosereasonablyforeseeablebythedefendant.Ifadefendantcouldnotreasonablyhaveforeseenthatsomeonemightbehurtbytheiractions,theremaybenoliability. Thisruledoesnotusuallyapplytointentionaltorts(forexample,tortofdeceit),andalsohasstuntedapplicabilitytothequantuminnegligencewherethemaxim'Intendedconsequencesarenevertooremote]'applies:'never'isinaccurateherebutresortstounforeseeabledirectandnaturalconsequencesofanact. Experttestimony[edit] Itmaybeusefulforthelawyers,theplaintiffand/orthedefendanttoemployforensicaccountantsorsomeonetrainedintherelevantfieldofeconomicstogiveevidenceonthevalueoftheloss.[3]Inthiscase,theymaybecalledupontogiveopinionevidenceasanexpertwitness. Compensatorydamages[edit] Compensatorydamagesarepaidtocompensatetheclaimantforloss,injury,orharmsufferedbytheclaimantasaresultofanother'sbreachofdutythatcausedtheloss.[7]Forexample,compensatorydamagesmaybeawardedastheresultofanegligenceclaimundertortlaw.Expectationdamagesareusedincontractlawtoputaninjuredpartyinthepositionitwouldhaveoccupiedbutforthebreach.[8]Compensatorydamagescanbeclassifiedasspecialdamagesandgeneraldamages.[9] Quantum(measure)ofdamages[edit] Liabilityforpaymentofanawardofdamagesisestablishedwhentheclaimantproves,onthebalanceofprobabilities,thatadefendant'swrongfulactcausedatangible,harm,lossorinjurytotheplaintiff.Oncethatthresholdismet,theplaintiffisentitledtosomeamountofrecoveryforthatlossorinjury.Norecoveryisnotanoption.Thecourtmustthenassesstheamountofcompensationattributabletotheharmfulactsofthedefendant.[10] Specialdamages[edit] Specialdamagescompensatetheclaimantforthequantifiablemonetarylossessufferedbytheplaintiff.[11]Forexample,extracosts,repairorreplacementofdamagedproperty,lostearnings(bothhistoricallyandinthefuture),lossofirreplaceableitems,additionaldomesticcosts,andsoon.[12]Theyareseeninbothpersonalandcommercialactions. Specialdamagescanincludedirectlosses(suchasamountstheclaimanthadtospendtotrytomitigatedamages)[13]andconsequentialoreconomiclossesresultingfromlostprofitsinabusiness. Damagesintortareawardedgenerallytoplacetheclaimantinthepositioninwhichhewouldhavebeenhadthetortnottakenplace.[14]Damagesforbreachofcontractaregenerallyawardedtoplacetheclaimantinthepositioninwhichhewouldhavebeenhadthecontractnotbeenbreached.Thiscanoftenresultinadifferentmeasureofdamages.Incaseswhereitispossibletoframeaclaimineithercontractortort,itisnecessarytobeawareofwhatgivesthebestoutcome. Ifthetransactionwasa"goodbargain",contractgenerallygivesabetterresultfortheclaimant. Asanexample,NealagreestosellMaryanantiqueRolexfor£100.Infactthewatchisafakeandworthonly£50.IfithadbeenagenuineantiqueRolex,itwouldhavebeenworth£500.Nealisinbreachofcontractandcouldbesued.Incontract,Maryisentitledtoanitemworth£500,butshehasonlyoneworth£50.Herdamagesare£450.NealalsoinducedMarytoenterintothecontractthroughamisrepresentation(atort).IfMarysuesintort,sheisentitledtodamagesthatputherselfbacktothesamefinancialpositionplaceshewouldhavebeeninhadthemisrepresentationnotbeenmade.Shewouldclearlynothaveenteredintothecontractknowingthewatchwasfake,andisentitledtoher£100back.Thusherdamagesintortare£100.(However,shewouldhavetoreturnthewatch,orelseherdamageswouldbe£50.) Ifthetransactionwerea"badbargain",tortgivesabetterresultfortheclaimant.IfintheaboveexampleMaryhadoverpaid,paying£750forthewatch,herdamagesincontractwouldstillbe£450(givinghertheitemshecontractedtobuy),howeverintortdamagesare£700.Thisisbecausedamagesintortputherinthepositionshewouldhavebeeninhadthetortnottakenplace,andarecalculatedashermoneyback(£750)lessthevalueofwhatsheactuallygot(£50). Incidentalandconsequentiallosses[edit] Specialdamagesaresometimesdividedintoincidentaldamages,andconsequentialdamages. Incidentallossesincludethecostsneededtoremedyproblemsandputthingsright.Thelargestelementislikelytobethereinstatementofpropertydamage.Takeforexampleafactorywhichwasburntdownbythenegligenceofacontractor.Theclaimantwouldbeentitledtothedirectcostsrequiredtorebuildthefactoryandreplacethedamagedmachinery. Theclaimantmayalsobeentitledtoanyconsequentiallosses.Thesemayincludethelostprofitsthattheclaimantcouldhavebeenexpectedtomakeintheperiodwhilstthefactorywasclosedandrebuilt. Breachofcontractduty-(excontract)[edit] Onabreachofcontractbyadefendant,acourtgenerallyawardsthesumthatwouldrestoretheinjuredpartytotheeconomicpositiontheyexpectedfromperformanceofthepromiseorpromises(knownasan"expectationmeasure"or"benefit-of-the-bargain"measureofdamages).Thisrule,however,hasattractedincreasingscrutinyfromAustraliancourtsandlegalcommentators.[15][16][17]Ajudgearrivescompensatorynumberbyconsideringboththetypeofcontract,andthelossincurred.[18] Whenitiseithernotpossibleornotdesirabletoawardthevictiminthatway,acourtmayawardmoneydamagesdesignedtorestoretheinjuredpartytotheeconomicpositions/heoccupiedatthetimethecontractwasentered(knownasthe"reliancemeasure")[19][20]ordesignedtopreventthebreachingpartyfrombeingunjustlyenriched("restitution")(seebelow). Partiesmaycontractforliquidateddamagestobepaiduponabreachofthecontractbyoneoftheparties.Undercommonlaw,aliquidateddamagesclausewillnotbeenforcedifthepurposeofthetermissolelytopunishabreach(inthiscaseitistermedpenaldamages).[21]Theclausewillbeenforceableifitinvolvesagenuineattempttoquantifyalossinadvanceandisagoodfaithestimateofeconomicloss.Courtshaveruledasexcessiveandinvalidateddamageswhichthepartiescontractedasliquidated,butwhichthecourtnonethelessfoundtobepenal.Todeterminewhetheraclauseisaliquidateddamagesclauseorapenaltyclause,itisnecessarytoconsider: i)Whethertheclauseis'extravagant,outofallproportion,exorbitantorunconscionable'[22] ii)Whetherthereisasinglesumstipulatedforanumberofdifferentbreaches,orindividualsumsforeachbreach[23] iii)Whetheragenuinepre-estimateofdamageisascertainable[23] Breachoftortduty-(exdelicto)[edit] Damagesintortaregenerallyawardedtoplacetheclaimantinthepositionthatwouldhavebeentakenhadthetortnottakenplace.Damagesintortarequantifiedundertwoheadings:generaldamagesandspecialdamages. Inpersonalinjuryclaims,damagesforcompensationarequantifiedbyreferencetotheseverityoftheinjuriessustained(seebelowgeneraldamagesformoredetails).Innon-personalinjuryclaims,forinstance,aclaimforprofessionalnegligenceagainstsolicitors,themeasureofdamageswillbeassessedbythelosssufferedbytheclientduetothenegligentactoromissionbythesolicitorgivingrisetotheloss.Thelossmustbereasonablyforeseeableandnottooremote.Financiallossesareusuallysimpletoquantifybutincomplexcaseswhichinvolvelossofpensionentitlementsandfuturelossprojections,theinstructingsolicitorwillusuallyemployaspecialistexpertactuaryoraccountanttoassistwiththequantificationoftheloss. Generaldamages[edit] Generaldamagesaremonetarycompensationforthenon-monetaryaspectsofthespecificharmsuffered.Thesedamagesaresometimestermed'pain,sufferingandlossofamenity'.Examplesofthisincludephysicaloremotionalpainandsuffering,lossofcompanionship,lossofconsortium,disfigurement,lossofreputation,lossorimpairmentofmentalorphysicalcapacity,hedonicdamagesorlossofenjoymentoflife,etc.[24]Thisisnoteasilyquantifiable,anddependsontheindividualcircumstancesoftheclaimant.JudgesintheUnitedKingdombasetheawardondamagesawardedinsimilarpreviouscases. Generaldamagesaregenerallyawardedonlyinclaimsbroughtbyindividuals,whentheyhavesufferedpersonalharm.Exampleswouldbepersonalinjury(followingthetortofnegligencebythedefendant),orthetortofdefamation. Statutorydamages[edit] Statutorydamagesareanamountstipulatedwithinthestatuteratherthancalculatedbasedonthedegreeofharmtotheplaintiff.Lawmakerswillprovideforstatutorydamagesforactsinwhichitisdifficulttodeterminethevalueoftheharmtothevictim.Mereviolationofthelawcanentitlethevictimtoastatutoryaward,evenifnoactualinjuryoccurred.Thesearedifferentfromnominaldamages,inwhichnowrittensumisspecified. Nominaldamages[edit] Nominaldamagesareverysmalldamagesawardedtoshowthatthelossorharmsufferedwastechnicalratherthanactual.Perhapsthemostfamousnominaldamagesawardinmoderntimeshasbeenthe$1verdictagainsttheNationalFootballLeague(NFL)inthe1986antitrustsuitprosecutedbytheUnitedStatesFootballLeague.AlthoughtheverdictwasautomaticallytrebledpursuanttoantitrustlawintheUnitedStates,theresulting$3judgmentwasregardedasavictoryfortheNFL.Historically,oneofthebestknownnominaldamageawardswasthefarthingthatthejuryawardedtoJamesWhistlerinhislibelsuitagainstJohnRuskin.IntheEnglishjurisdiction,nominaldamagesaregenerallyfixedat£5.[25] Manytimesapartythathasbeenwrongedbutisnotabletoprovesignificantdamageswillsuefornominaldamages.Thisisparticularlycommonincasesinvolvingallegedviolationsofconstitutionalrights,suchasfreedomofspeech.Until2021,intheUnitedStates,therewasacircuitsplitastowhethernominaldamagesmaybeusedifaconstitutionalviolationhadoccurredbuthassincebeenrenderedmoot.[26]TheSupremeCourtdecided8–1inthe2021caseUzuegbunamv.Preczewskithatnominaldamagesareappropriatemeanstoredressviolatedrightsotherwisenowrenderedmoot.[27][28] Contemptuousdamages[edit] Contemptuousdamagesareaformofdamageawardavailableinsomejurisdictions.Theyaresimilartonominaldamagesawards,astheyaregivenwhentheplaintiff'ssuitistrivial,usedonlytosettleapointofhonourorlaw.[29]Awardsareusuallyofthesmallestamount,usually1centorsimilar.Thekeydistinctionisthatinjurisdictionsthatfollowtheloser-paysforattorneyfees,theclaimantinacontemptuousdamagescasemayberequiredtopayhisorherownattorneyfees.[30] Traditionally,thecourtawardedthesmallestcoinintheRealm,whichinEnglandwasonefarthing,1/960ofapoundbeforedecimalisationinthe1970s.Courtcostsarenotawarded.[31] Punitivedamages(non-compensatory)[edit] Mainarticle:Punitivedamages Generally,punitivedamages,whicharealsotermedexemplarydamagesintheUnitedKingdom,arenotawardedinordertocompensatetheplaintiff,butinordertoreformordeterthedefendantandsimilarpersonsfrompursuingacourseofactionsuchasthatwhichdamagedtheplaintiff.Punitivedamagesareawardedonlyinspecialcaseswhereconductwasegregiouslyinsidiousandareoverandabovetheamountofcompensatorydamages,suchasintheeventofmaliceorintent.Greatjudicialrestraintisexpectedtobeexercisedintheirapplication.IntheUnitedStatespunitivedamagesawardsaresubjecttothelimitationsimposedbythedueprocessoflawclausesoftheFifthandFourteenthAmendmentstotheUnitedStatesConstitution. InEnglandandWales,exemplarydamagesarelimitedtothecircumstancessetoutbyLordDevlinintheleadingcaseofRookesv.Barnard.Theyare: Oppressive,arbitraryorunconstitutionalactionsbytheservantsofgovernment. Wherethedefendant'sconductwas'calculated'tomakeaprofitforhimself. Whereastatuteexpresslyauthorisesthesame. RookesvBarnardhasbeenmuchcriticisedandhasnotbeenfollowedinCanadaorAustraliaorbythePrivyCouncil. PunitivedamagesawardedinaUScasewouldbedifficulttogetrecognitionforinaEuropeancourt,wherepunitivedamagesaremostlikelytobeconsideredtoviolateordrepublic.[32] Aggravateddamages[edit] Somejurisdictionsrecognizeaformofdamages,called,aggravateddamages,thataresimilartopunitiveorexemplarydamages.Aggravateddamagesarenotoftenawarded;theyapplywheretheinjuryhasbeenaggravatedbythewrongdoer'sbehaviour,forexample,theircruelty.[33] Restitutionaryordisgorgementdamages[edit] Incertainareasofthelawanotherheadofdamageshaslongbeenavailable,wherebythedefendantismadetogiveuptheprofitsmadethroughthecivilwronginrestitution.DoyleandWrightdefinerestitutionarydamagesasbeingamonetaryremedythatismeasuredaccordingtothedefendant'sgainratherthantheplaintiff'sloss.[34]Theplaintifftherebygainsdamageswhicharenotmeasuredbyreferencetoanylosssustained.Insomeareasofthelawthisheadingofdamagesisuncontroversial;mostparticularlyintellectualpropertyrightsandbreachoffiduciaryrelationship. InEnglandandWalestheHouseofLordscaseofAttorney-Generalv.Blakeopenedupthepossibilityofrestitutionarydamagesforbreachofcontract.Inthiscasetheprofitsmadebyadefectingspy,GeorgeBlake,forthepublicationofhisbook,wereawardedtotheBritishGovernmentforbreachofcontract.ThecasehasbeenfollowedinEnglishcourts,butthesituationsinwhichrestitutionarydamageswillbeavailableremainunclear. Thebasisforrestitutionarydamagesismuchdebated,butisusuallyseenasbasedondenyingawrongdoeranyprofitfromhiswrongdoing.Thereallydifficultquestion,andonewhichiscurrentlyunanswered,relatestowhatwrongsshouldallowthisremedy. Legalcosts[edit] Seealso:Americanrule(attorney'sfees)andEnglishrule(attorney'sfees) Inadditiontodamages,thesuccessfulpartyisentitledtobeawardedtheirreasonablelegalcoststhattheyspentduringthecase.ThisistheruleinmostcountriesotherthantheUnitedStates.IntheUnitedStates,apartygenerallyisnotentitledtoitsattorneys'feesorforhardshipsundergoneduringtrialunlessthepartiesagreedinacontractthatattorney'sfeesshouldbecoveredoraspecificstatuteorlawpermitsrecoveryoflegalfees,suchasdiscrimination.[35] Damagesinpersonalinjurycases[edit] Theexamplesandperspectiveinthissectionmaynotrepresentaworldwideviewofthesubject.Youmayimprovethissection,discusstheissueonthetalkpage,orcreateanewsection,asappropriate.(June2016)(Learnhowandwhentoremovethistemplatemessage) Thisarticleneedsadditionalcitationsforverification.Pleasehelpimprovethisarticlebyaddingcitationstoreliablesources.Unsourcedmaterialmaybechallengedandremoved.Findsources: "Damages" – news ·newspapers ·books ·scholar ·JSTOR(October2010)(Learnhowandwhentoremovethistemplatemessage) Thequantificationofpersonalinjuryisnotanexactscience.InEnglishlawsolicitorsliketocallpersonalinjuryclaimsas"generaldamages"forpainandsufferingandlossofamenity(PSLA).Solicitorsquantifypersonalinjuryclaimsbyreferencetopreviousawardsmadebythecourtswhichare"similar"tothecaseinhand.Theguidancesolicitorswilltakeintoaccounttohelpquantifygeneraldamagesareashereunder: Theageoftheclient[edit] Theageoftheclientisimportantespeciallywhendealingwithfatalaccidentclaimsorpermanentinjuries.TheyoungertheinjuredvictimwithapermanentinjurythelongerthatpersonhastolivewiththePSLA.Asaconsequence,thegreaterthecompensationpayment.Infatalaccidentclaims,generallytheyoungerdeceased,thegreaterthedependencyclaimbythepartnerandchildren. Thenatureandextentoftheinjuriessustained[edit] Solicitorswillconsider"likeforlike"injurieswiththecaseinhandandsimilarcasesdecidedbythecourtspreviously.Thesecasesareknownasprecedents.Generallyspeakingdecisionsfromthehighercourtswillbindthelowercourts.Therefore,judgmentsfromtheHouseofLordsandtheCourtofAppealhavegreaterauthoritythanthelowercourtssuchastheHighCourtandtheCountyCourt.Acompensationawardcanonlyberightorwrongwithreferencetothatspecificjudgment.SolicitorsmustbecarefulwhenlookingatoldercaseswhenquantifyingaclaimtoensurethattheawardisbroughtuptodateandtotakeintoaccountthecourtofappealcaseinHeilvRankin[36]Generallyspeakingthegreatertheinjurythegreaterthedamagesawarded. Personalattributesandfortitudeoftheclient[edit] Thisheadingisinextricablylinkedwiththeotherpointsabove.Wheretwoclientsareofthesameage,experienceandsufferthesameinjury,itdoesnotnecessarilymeanthattheywillbeaffectedthesame.Wearealldifferent.Somepeoplewillrecovermorequicklythanothers.Thecourtswillassesseachclaimonitsownparticularfactsandthereforeifoneclaimantrecoversmorequicklythananother,thedamageswillbereflectedaccordingly.Itisimportanttonoteherethat"psychologicalinjuries"mayalsofollowfromanaccidentwhichmayincreasethequantumofdamages. Whenapersonalinjuryclaimissettledeitherincourtoroutofcourt,themostcommonwaythecompensationpaymentismadeisbyalumpsumawardinfullandfinalsettlementoftheclaim.Onceacceptedtherecanbenofurtherawardforcompensationatalatertimeunlesstheclaimissettledbyprovisionaldamagesoftenfoundinindustrialinjuryclaimssuchasasbestosrelatedinjuries. Seealso[edit] Moneyportal Arbitrationaward Badfaith Fine(penalty) MeasureofDamages(underEnglishlaw) Non-economicdamagescaps Restorativejustice Subrogation Restitution Reparations(transitionaljustice) Legalremedy Reparation(legal) Reparations Warreparations Reparationsforslavery Notes[edit] ^Internationalprinciple:Trans-Lex.org,Garner,p.416 ^See,e.g.,SpartanSteel&AlloysLtdvMartin&Co(Contractors)Ltd[1973]1QB27;ElectrochromevWelshPlastics[1968]2AllER205,,andBritishCelanesevHunt[1969]1WLR959 ^abLarson,Aaron(25July2016)."HowAreDamagesCalculatedAfteranInjuryorLawsuit".ExpertLaw.Retrieved19September2017. ^"ActualDamages".Wex.CornellLawSchool.Retrieved19September2017. ^"PunitiveDamages".Wex.CornellLawSchool.Retrieved19September2017. ^Brinig,BrianP.,JD,CPA(2011).Finance&AccountingforLawyers.Portland,OR:BVResources,LLC.p. 200.ISBN 978-1-935081-71-5. ^Bartels,NataliaM.;Madden,M.Stuart(2001)."AComparativeAnalysisofUnitedStatesandColombianTortLaw:Duty,Breach,andDamages".PaceInternationalLawReview.13:59.Retrieved6July2020. ^Cooter,Robert;Eisenberg,MelvinA.(1985)."DamagesforBreachofContract".CaliforniaLawReview.73(5):1432.doi:10.2307/3480408.JSTOR 3480408.Retrieved6July2020. ^Sanders,Joseph(2008)."ReformingGeneralDamages:AGoodTortReform".RogerWilliamsUniversityLawRev.13:115.Retrieved6July2020. ^See,e.g.,theU.S.SupremeCourtcasesof"TheConqueror,166US110,17S.Ct.510,41L.Ed.937(1897)".GoogleScholar.Retrieved19September2017.and"Palmerv.ConnecticutRailway&LightingCo.,311US544,61S.Ct.379,85L.Ed.336(1941)".GoogleScholar.Retrieved19September2017. ^Cilia,Fiona(12November2010)."QuantifyingDamagesforLucrumCessansinTor".JournalofCivilLawStudies.4(2):341. ^Morris,Clarence(March1959)."LiabilityforPainandSuffering".ColumbiaLawReview.59(3):476–485.doi:10.2307/1120125.JSTOR 1120125. ^"DutytoMitigate".Wex.CornellLawSchool.Retrieved19September2017. ^Goldberg,JohnC.P.(2005)."TwoConceptionsofTortDamages:Fairv.FullCompensation".DePaulLawReview.55:435.Retrieved19September2017. ^TabcorpHoldingsLtdvBowenInvestmentsPtyLtd[2009]HCA8,HighCourt(Australia). ^ClarkvMacourt[2013]HCA93,HighCourt(Australia). ^Winterton,David(2014)."ClarkvMacourt:DefectiveSpermandPerformanceSubstitutesintheHighCourtofAustralia".MelbourneUniversityLawReview.(2014)38(2)MelbourneUniversityLawReview755. ^"RemediesforBreachofContract—JudicialEducationCenter".jec.unm.edu.Retrieved2020-04-13. ^McRaevCommonwealthDisposalsCommission[1951]HCA79,(1951)84CLR377,HighCourt(Australia). ^CommonwealthvAmannAviation[1991]HCA54,(1991)174CLR64,HighCourt(Australia). ^Amev-UdcFinanceLtdvAustin[1986]HCA63,(1986)162CLR170(4November1986),HighCourt(Australia). ^AustralianCompetition&ConsumerCommissionvEsandaFinanceCorporationLtd[2003]FCA1225(7November2003),FederalCourt(Australia). ^abDunlopPneumaticTyreCoLtdvSelfridge&CoLtd[1915]UKHL1,[1915]AC847(26April1915). ^Beaman,Richard(2010-09-22)."LossofAmenity".DouglasWemyssSolicitors.Leicester.Archivedfromtheoriginalon2010-11-15. ^McBride,Bagshaw(2018).TortLaw(6 ed.).Pearson.p. 784. ^Frankel,Alison(August24,2017)."Comeforthesextoys.Stayforthenewlycreatedcircuitsplitonmootness".Reuters.RetrievedJanuary11,2021. ^Liptak,Adam(January12,2021)."CitingTaylorSwift,SupremeCourtSeemsSettoBackNominalDamagesSuits".TheNewYorkTimes.RetrievedJanuary12,2021. ^Dewer,Devin(March8,2021)."SupremeCourtsideswithChristianstudentssilencedonGeorgiacampus".ABCNews.RetrievedMarch8,2021. ^"Contemptuousdamages".OxfordReference.OxfordUniversityPress.Retrieved19September2017. ^Oliphant,Ken;Lunney,Mark(2008).TortLaw:TextandMaterials.Oxford,England:OxfordUniversityPress.p. 865.ISBN 978-0199211364. ^Spetz,StevenE(1974)."CivilCourtProcedureAndRemediesForTort".CanISue?AnIntroductiontoCanadianTortLaw.Toronto:Pitman.p. 219.ISBN 0-273-04189-4. ^Koziol,Helmut;Wilcox,Vanessa(2011).3709109647.SpringerVienna.ISBN 978-3709109649.Retrieved19September2017. ^Behand,Nadine(2009).HowToRunYourOwnCourtCase.Sydney:RedfernLegalCentre.p. 145.ISBN 978-1-921410-83-3. ^Doyle,S;Wright,D(2001)."Restitutionarydamages-theunnecessaryremedy".MelbourneUniversityLawReview.(2001)25(1)MelbourneUniversityLawReview1. ^"RemediesforEmploymentDiscrimination".RetrievedJuly4,2010. ^HeilvRankin&Another[2000]EWCACiv84,CourtofAppeal Furtherreading[edit] Black,Stephen(2011)."ACapitalGainsAnomaly:Commissionerv.BanksandtheProceedsfromLawsuits".St.Mary'sLawJournal.43:113.SSRN 1858776. Externallinks[edit] Craies,WilliamFeilden(1911)."Damages" .EncyclopædiaBritannica(11th ed.). 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