Brain–computer interface - Wikipedia

A brain–computer interface (BCI), sometimes called a brain–machine interface (BMI), is a direct communication pathway between the brain's electrical ... Brain–computerinterface FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia Jumptonavigation Jumptosearch IthasbeensuggestedthatBraintechnologybemergedintothisarticle.(Discuss)ProposedsinceSeptember2022. Fordirectbraincontrolofprostheticdevices,seeNeuroprosthetics. Directcommunicationpathwaybetweenanenhancedorwiredbrainandanexternaldevice Neuropsychology Topics Brainregions Clinicalneuropsychology Cognitiveneuropsychology Cognitiveneuroscience Dementia Humanbrain Neuroanatomy Neurophysiology Neuropsychologicalassessment Neuropsychologicalrehabilitation Traumaticbraininjury Brainfunctions Arousal Attention Consciousness Decisionmaking Executivefunctions Naturallanguage Learning Memory Motorcoordination Perception Planning Problemsolving Thought People AlanBaddeley ArthurL.Benton DavidBohm AntonioDamasio PhineasGage NormanGeschwind ElkhononGoldberg PatriciaGoldman-Rakic DonaldO.Hebb KennethHeilman EricKandel EdithKaplan MurielLezak BenjaminLibet RodolfoLlinás AlexanderLuria BrendaMilner KarlH.Pribram PaskoRakic OliverSacks MarkRosenzweig RogerW.Sperry Hans-LukasTeuber HenryMolaison("H.M.",patient) K.C.(patient) Tests BentonVisualRetentionTest ContinuousPerformanceTask Halstead-ReitanNeuropsychologicalBattery HaylingandBrixtontests LexicalDecisionTask Luria-Nebraskaneuropsychologicalbattery Mini–MentalStateExamination Rey–Osterriethcomplexfigure StroopTest WechslerAdultIntelligenceScale WechslerMemoryScale WisconsinCardSortingTask  Psychologyportal  Philosophyportal  Medicineportal vte Abrain–computerinterface(BCI),sometimescalledabrain–machineinterface(BMI),isadirectcommunicationpathwaybetweenthebrain'selectricalactivityandanexternaldevice,mostcommonlyacomputerorroboticlimb.BCIsareoftendirectedatresearching,mapping,assisting,augmenting,orrepairinghumancognitiveorsensory-motorfunctions.[1]ImplementationsofBCIsrangefromnon-invasive(EEG,MEG,EOG,MRI)andpartiallyinvasive(ECoGandendovascular)toinvasive(microelectrodearray),basedonhowcloseelectrodesgettobraintissue.[2] ResearchonBCIsbeganinthe1970sbyJacquesVidalattheUniversityofCalifornia,LosAngeles(UCLA)underagrantfromtheNationalScienceFoundation,followedbyacontractfromDARPA.[3][4]TheVidal's1973papermarksthefirstappearanceoftheexpressionbrain–computerinterfaceinscientificliterature. Duetothecorticalplasticityofthebrain,signalsfromimplantedprosthesescan,afteradaptation,behandledbythebrainlikenaturalsensororeffectorchannels.[5]Followingyearsofanimalexperimentation,thefirstneuroprostheticdevicesimplantedinhumansappearedinthemid-1990s. Recently,studiesinhuman-computerinteractionviatheapplicationofmachinelearningtostatisticaltemporalfeaturesextractedfromthefrontallobe(EEGbrainwave)datahashadhighlevelsofsuccessinautonomousrecognitionoffalldetectionasamedicalalarm,[6]mentalstate(Relaxed,Neutral,Concentrating),[7]mentalemotionalstate(Negative,Neutral,Positive),[8]andthalamocorticaldysrhythmia.[9] Contents 1History 2BCIsversusneuroprosthetics 3AnimalBCIresearch 3.1Earlywork 3.2Prominentresearchsuccesses 3.2.1KennedyandYangDan 3.2.2Nicolelis 3.2.3Donoghue,SchwartzandAndersen 3.2.4Otherresearch 3.2.5TheBCIAward 4HumanBCIresearch 4.1InvasiveBCIs 4.1.1Vision 4.1.2Movement 4.1.3Communication 4.1.4Technicalchallenges 4.2PartiallyinvasiveBCIs 4.2.1Endovascular 4.2.2ECoG 4.3Non-invasiveBCIs 4.3.1Non-EEG-basedhuman–computerinterface 4.3.1.1Electrooculography(EOG) 4.3.1.2Pupil-sizeoscillation 4.3.2Functionalnear-infraredspectroscopy 4.3.3Electroencephalography(EEG)-basedbrain-computerinterfaces 4.3.4Dryactiveelectrodearrays 4.3.5SSVEPmobileEEGBCIs 4.3.6Limitations 4.3.7Prosthesisandenvironmentcontrol 4.3.8DIYandopensourceBCI 4.3.9MEGandMRI 4.3.10BCIcontrolstrategiesinneurogaming 4.3.10.1Motorimagery 4.3.10.2Bio/neurofeedbackforpassiveBCIdesigns 4.3.10.3Visualevokedpotential(VEP) 4.4Synthetictelepathy/silentcommunication 5Cell-cultureBCIs 6CollaborativeBCIs 7Ethicalconsiderations 7.1User-centricissues 7.2Legalandsocial 8Low-costBCI-basedinterfaces 9Futuredirections 9.1Disordersofconsciousness(DOC) 9.2Motorrecovery 9.3Functionalbrainmapping 9.4Flexibledevices 9.5Neuraldust 10Seealso 11Notes 12References 13Furtherreading 14Externallinks History[edit] Thehistoryofbrain–computerinterfaces(BCIs)startswithHansBerger'sdiscoveryoftheelectricalactivityofthehumanbrainandthedevelopmentofelectroencephalography(EEG).In1924BergerwasthefirsttorecordhumanbrainactivitybymeansofEEG.Bergerwasabletoidentifyoscillatoryactivity,suchasBerger'swaveorthealphawave(8–13 Hz),byanalyzingEEGtraces. Berger'sfirstrecordingdevicewasveryrudimentary.Heinsertedsilverwiresunderthescalpsofhispatients.Thesewerelaterreplacedbysilverfoilsattachedtothepatient'sheadbyrubberbandages.BergerconnectedthesesensorstoaLippmanncapillaryelectrometer,withdisappointingresults.However,moresophisticatedmeasuringdevices,suchastheSiemensdouble-coilrecordinggalvanometer,whichdisplayedelectricvoltagesassmallasonetenthousandthofavolt,ledtosuccess. BergeranalyzedtheinterrelationofalternationsinhisEEGwavediagramswithbraindiseases.EEGspermittedcompletelynewpossibilitiesfortheresearchofhumanbrainactivities. Althoughthetermhadnotyetbeencoined,oneoftheearliestexamplesofaworkingbrain-machineinterfacewasthepieceMusicforSoloPerformer(1965)bytheAmericancomposerAlvinLucier.ThepiecemakesuseofEEGandanalogsignalprocessinghardware(filters,amplifiers,andamixingboard)tostimulateacousticpercussioninstruments.Toperformthepieceonemustproducealphawavesandthereby"play"thevariouspercussioninstrumentsvialoudspeakerswhichareplacednearordirectlyontheinstrumentsthemselves.[10] UCLAProfessorJacquesVidalcoinedtheterm"BCI"andproducedthefirstpeer-reviewedpublicationsonthistopic.[3][4]VidaliswidelyrecognizedastheinventorofBCIsintheBCIcommunity,asreflectedinnumerouspeer-reviewedarticlesreviewinganddiscussingthefield(e.g.,[11][12][13]).AreviewpointedoutthatVidal's1973paperstatedthe"BCIchallenge"[14]ofcontrollingexternalobjectsusingEEGsignals,andespeciallyuseofContingentNegativeVariation(CNV)potentialasachallengeforBCIcontrol.The1977experimentVidaldescribedwasthefirstapplicationofBCIafterhis1973BCIchallenge.ItwasanoninvasiveEEG(actuallyVisualEvokedPotentials(VEP))controlofacursor-likegraphicalobjectonacomputerscreen.Thedemonstrationwasmovementinamaze.[15] Afterhisearlycontributions,VidalwasnotactiveinBCIresearch,norBCIeventssuchasconferences,formanyyears.In2011,however,hegavealectureinGraz,Austria,supportedbytheFutureBNCIproject,presentingthefirstBCI,whichearnedastandingovation.Vidalwasjoinedbyhiswife,LaryceVidal,whopreviouslyworkedwithhimatUCLAonhisfirstBCIproject. In1988,areportwasgivenonnoninvasiveEEGcontrolofaphysicalobject,arobot.TheexperimentdescribedwasEEGcontrolofmultiplestart-stop-restartoftherobotmovement,alonganarbitrarytrajectorydefinedbyalinedrawnonafloor.Theline-followingbehaviorwasthedefaultrobotbehavior,utilizingautonomousintelligenceandautonomoussourceofenergy.[16][17]This1988reportwrittenbyStevoBozinovski,MihailSestakov,andLiljanaBozinovskawasthefirstoneaboutarobotcontrolusingEEG.[18][19] In1990,areportwasgivenonaclosedloop,bidirectionaladaptiveBCIcontrollingcomputerbuzzerbyananticipatorybrainpotential,theContingentNegativeVariation(CNV)potential.[20][21]Theexperimentdescribedhowanexpectationstateofthebrain,manifestedbyCNV,controlsinafeedbacklooptheS2buzzerintheS1-S2-CNVparadigm.TheobtainedcognitivewaverepresentingtheexpectationlearninginthebrainisnamedElectroexpectogram(EXG).TheCNVbrainpotentialwaspartoftheBCIchallengepresentedbyVidalinhis1973paper. Studiesin2010ssuggestedthepotentialabilityofneuralstimulationtorestorefunctionalconnectivelyandassociatedbehaviorsthroughmodulationofmolecularmechanismsofsynapticefficacy.[22][23]ThisopenedthedoorfortheconceptthatBCItechnologiesmaybeabletorestorefunctioninadditiontoenablingfunctionality. Since2013,DARPAhasfundedBCItechnologythroughtheBRAINinitiative,whichhassupportedworkoutoftheUniversityofPittsburghMedicalCenter,[24]Paradromics,[25]Brown,[26]andSynchron,[27]amongothers. BCIsversusneuroprosthetics[edit] Mainarticle:Neuroprosthetics Neuroprostheticsisanareaofneuroscienceconcernedwithneuralprostheses,thatis,usingartificialdevicestoreplacethefunctionofimpairednervoussystemsandbrain-relatedproblems,orofsensoryorgansororgansitself(bladder,diaphragm,etc.).AsofDecember2010,cochlearimplantshadbeenimplantedasneuroprostheticdeviceinapproximately220,000peopleworldwide.[28]Therearealsoseveralneuroprostheticdevicesthataimtorestorevision,includingretinalimplants.Thefirstneuroprostheticdevice,however,wasthepacemaker. Thetermsaresometimesusedinterchangeably.NeuroprostheticsandBCIsseektoachievethesameaims,suchasrestoringsight,hearing,movement,abilitytocommunicate,andevencognitivefunction.[1]Bothusesimilarexperimentalmethodsandsurgicaltechniques. AnimalBCIresearch[edit] SeverallaboratorieshavemanagedtorecordsignalsfrommonkeyandratcerebralcorticestooperateBCIstoproducemovement.Monkeyshavenavigatedcomputercursorsonscreenandcommandedroboticarmstoperformsimpletaskssimplybythinkingaboutthetaskandseeingthevisualfeedback,butwithoutanymotoroutput.[29]InMay2008photographsthatshowedamonkeyattheUniversityofPittsburghMedicalCenteroperatingaroboticarmbythinkingwerepublishedinanumberofwell-knownsciencejournalsandmagazines.[30]SheeptoohavebeenusedtoevaluateBCItechnologyincludingSynchron'sStentrode. In2020,ElonMusk'sNeuralinkwassuccessfullyimplantedinapig,[31]announcedinawidelyviewedwebcast.In2021ElonMuskannouncedthathehadsuccessfullyenabledamonkeytoplayvideogames[32]usingNeuralink'sdevice. Earlywork[edit] Monkeyoperatingaroboticarmwithbrain–computerinterfacing(Schwartzlab,UniversityofPittsburgh) In1969theoperantconditioningstudiesofFetzandcolleagues, attheRegionalPrimateResearchCenterandDepartmentofPhysiologyandBiophysics,UniversityofWashingtonSchoolofMedicineinSeattle,showedforthefirsttimethatmonkeyscouldlearntocontrolthedeflectionofabiofeedbackmeterarmwithneuralactivity.[33]Similarworkinthe1970sestablishedthatmonkeyscouldquicklylearntovoluntarilycontrolthefiringratesofindividualandmultipleneuronsintheprimarymotorcortexiftheywererewardedforgeneratingappropriatepatternsofneuralactivity.[34] Studiesthatdevelopedalgorithmstoreconstructmovementsfrommotorcortexneurons,whichcontrolmovement,datebacktothe1970s.Inthe1980s,ApostolosGeorgopoulosatJohnsHopkinsUniversityfoundamathematicalrelationshipbetweentheelectricalresponsesofsinglemotorcortexneuronsinrhesusmacaquemonkeysandthedirectioninwhichtheymovedtheirarms(basedonacosinefunction).Healsofoundthatdispersedgroupsofneurons,indifferentareasofthemonkey'sbrains,collectivelycontrolledmotorcommands,butwasabletorecordthefiringsofneuronsinonlyoneareaatatime,becauseofthetechnicallimitationsimposedbyhisequipment.[35] TherehasbeenrapiddevelopmentinBCIssincethemid-1990s.[36]Severalgroupshavebeenabletocapturecomplexbrainmotorcortexsignalsbyrecordingfromneuralensembles(groupsofneurons)andusingthesetocontrolexternaldevices. Prominentresearchsuccesses[edit] KennedyandYangDan[edit] PhillipKennedy(wholaterfoundedNeuralSignalsin1987)andcolleaguesbuiltthefirstintracorticalbrain–computerinterfacebyimplantingneurotrophic-coneelectrodesintomonkeys.[citationneeded] YangDanandcolleagues'recordingsofcatvisionusingaBCIimplantedinthelateralgeniculatenucleus(toprow:originalimage;bottomrow:recording)In1999,researchersledbyYangDanattheUniversityofCalifornia,Berkeleydecodedneuronalfiringstoreproduceimagesseenbycats.Theteamusedanarrayofelectrodesembeddedinthethalamus(whichintegratesallofthebrain'ssensoryinput)ofsharp-eyedcats.Researcherstargeted177braincellsinthethalamuslateralgeniculatenucleusarea,whichdecodessignalsfromtheretina.Thecatswereshowneightshortmovies,andtheirneuronfiringswererecorded.Usingmathematicalfilters,theresearchersdecodedthesignalstogeneratemoviesofwhatthecatssawandwereabletoreconstructrecognizablescenesandmovingobjects.[37]SimilarresultsinhumanshavesincebeenachievedbyresearchersinJapan(seebelow). Nicolelis[edit] MiguelNicolelis,aprofessoratDukeUniversity,inDurham,NorthCarolina,hasbeenaprominentproponentofusingmultipleelectrodesspreadoveragreaterareaofthebraintoobtainneuronalsignalstodriveaBCI. Afterconductinginitialstudiesinratsduringthe1990s,NicolelisandhiscolleaguesdevelopedBCIsthatdecodedbrainactivityinowlmonkeysandusedthedevicestoreproducemonkeymovementsinroboticarms.Monkeyshaveadvancedreachingandgraspingabilitiesandgoodhandmanipulationskills,makingthemidealtestsubjectsforthiskindofwork. By2000,thegroupsucceededinbuildingaBCIthatreproducedowlmonkeymovementswhilethemonkeyoperatedajoystickorreachedforfood.[38]TheBCIoperatedinrealtimeandcouldalsocontrolaseparaterobotremotelyoverinternetprotocol.Butthemonkeyscouldnotseethearmmovinganddidnotreceiveanyfeedback,aso-calledopen-loopBCI. DiagramoftheBCIdevelopedbyMiguelNicolelisandcolleaguesforuseonrhesusmonkeys LaterexperimentsbyNicolelisusingrhesusmonkeyssucceededinclosingthefeedbackloopandreproducedmonkeyreachingandgraspingmovementsinarobotarm.Withtheirdeeplycleftandfurrowedbrains,rhesusmonkeysareconsideredtobebettermodelsforhumanneurophysiologythanowlmonkeys.Themonkeysweretrainedtoreachandgraspobjectsonacomputerscreenbymanipulatingajoystickwhilecorrespondingmovementsbyarobotarmwerehidden.[39][40]Themonkeyswerelatershowntherobotdirectlyandlearnedtocontrolitbyviewingitsmovements.TheBCIusedvelocitypredictionstocontrolreachingmovementsandsimultaneouslypredictedhandgrippingforce.In2011O'DohertyandcolleaguesshowedaBCIwithsensoryfeedbackwithrhesusmonkeys.Themonkeywasbraincontrollingthepositionofanavatararmwhilereceivingsensoryfeedbackthroughdirectintracorticalstimulation(ICMS)inthearmrepresentationareaofthesensorycortex.[41] Donoghue,SchwartzandAndersen[edit] BCIsareacorefocusoftheCarneyInstituteforBrainScienceatBrownUniversity OtherlaboratorieswhichhavedevelopedBCIsandalgorithmsthatdecodeneuronsignalsincludetheCarneyInstituteforBrainScienceatBrownUniversityandthelabsofAndrewSchwartzattheUniversityofPittsburghandRichardAndersenatCaltech.TheseresearchershavebeenabletoproduceworkingBCIs,evenusingrecordedsignalsfromfarfewerneuronsthandidNicolelis(15–30neuronsversus50–200neurons). JohnDonoghue'slabattheCarneyInstitutereportedtrainingrhesusmonkeystouseaBCItotrackvisualtargetsonacomputerscreen(closed-loopBCI)withorwithoutassistanceofajoystick.[42]Schwartz'sgroupcreatedaBCIforthree-dimensionaltrackinginvirtualrealityandalsoreproducedBCIcontrolinaroboticarm.[43]Thesamegroupalsocreatedheadlineswhentheydemonstratedthatamonkeycouldfeeditselfpiecesoffruitandmarshmallowsusingaroboticarmcontrolledbytheanimal'sownbrainsignals.[44][45][46] Andersen'sgroupusedrecordingsofpremovementactivityfromtheposteriorparietalcortexintheirBCI,includingsignalscreatedwhenexperimentalanimalsanticipatedreceivingareward.[47] Otherresearch[edit] Inadditiontopredictingkinematicandkineticparametersoflimbmovements,BCIsthatpredictelectromyographicorelectricalactivityofthemusclesofprimatesarebeingdeveloped.[48]SuchBCIscouldbeusedtorestoremobilityinparalyzedlimbsbyelectricallystimulatingmuscles. MiguelNicolelisandcolleaguesdemonstratedthattheactivityoflargeneuralensemblescanpredictarmposition.ThisworkmadepossiblecreationofBCIsthatreadarmmovementintentionsandtranslatethemintomovementsofartificialactuators.Carmenaandcolleagues[39]programmedtheneuralcodinginaBCIthatallowedamonkeytocontrolreachingandgraspingmovementsbyaroboticarm.Lebedevandcolleagues[40]arguedthatbrainnetworksreorganizetocreateanewrepresentationoftheroboticappendageinadditiontotherepresentationoftheanimal'sownlimbs. In2019,researchersfromUCSFpublishedastudywheretheydemonstratedaBCIthathadthepotentialtohelppatientswithspeechimpairmentcausedbyneurologicaldisorders.TheirBCIusedhigh-densityelectrocorticographytotapneuralactivityfromapatient'sbrainanduseddeeplearningmethodstosynthesizespeech.[49][50]In2021,researchersfromthesamegrouppublishedastudyshowingthepotentialofaBCItodecodewordsandsentencesinananarthricpatientwhohadbeenunabletospeakforover15years.[51][52] ThebiggestimpedimenttoBCItechnologyatpresentisthelackofasensormodalitythatprovidessafe,accurateandrobustaccesstobrainsignals.Itisconceivableorevenlikely,however,thatsuchasensorwillbedevelopedwithinthenexttwentyyears.TheuseofsuchasensorshouldgreatlyexpandtherangeofcommunicationfunctionsthatcanbeprovidedusingaBCI. DevelopmentandimplementationofaBCIsystemiscomplexandtime-consuming.Inresponsetothisproblem,GerwinSchalkhasbeendevelopingageneral-purposesystemforBCIresearch,calledBCI2000.BCI2000hasbeenindevelopmentsince2000inaprojectledbytheBrain–ComputerInterfaceR&DProgramattheWadsworthCenteroftheNewYorkStateDepartmentofHealthinAlbany,NewYork,UnitedStates. Anew'wireless'approachuseslight-gatedionchannelssuchasChannelrhodopsintocontroltheactivityofgeneticallydefinedsubsetsofneuronsinvivo.Inthecontextofasimplelearningtask,illuminationoftransfectedcellsinthesomatosensorycortexinfluencedthedecision-makingprocessoffreelymovingmice.[53] TheuseofBMIshasalsoledtoadeeperunderstandingofneuralnetworksandthecentralnervoussystem.Researchhasshownthatdespitetheinclinationofneuroscientiststobelievethatneuronshavethemosteffectwhenworkingtogether,singleneuronscanbeconditionedthroughtheuseofBMIstofireatapatternthatallowsprimatestocontrolmotoroutputs.TheuseofBMIshasledtodevelopmentofthesingleneuroninsufficiencyprinciplewhichstatesthatevenwithawelltunedfiringratesingleneuronscanonlycarryanarrowamountofinformationandthereforethehighestlevelofaccuracyisachievedbyrecordingfiringsofthecollectiveensemble.OtherprinciplesdiscoveredwiththeuseofBMIsincludetheneuronalmultitaskingprinciple,theneuronalmassprinciple,theneuraldegeneracyprinciple,andtheplasticityprinciple.[54] BCIsarealsoproposedtobeappliedbyuserswithoutdisabilities.Auser-centeredcategorizationofBCIapproachesbyThorstenO.ZanderandChristianKotheintroducesthetermpassiveBCI.[55]NexttoactiveandreactiveBCIthatareusedfordirectedcontrol,passiveBCIsallowforassessingandinterpretingchangesintheuserstateduringHuman-ComputerInteraction(HCI).Inasecondary,implicitcontrolloopthecomputersystemadaptstoitsuserimprovingitsusabilityingeneral. BeyondBCIsystemsthatdecodeneuralactivitytodriveexternaleffectors,BCIsystemsmaybeusedtoencodesignalsfromtheperiphery.ThesesensoryBCIdevicesenablereal-time,behaviorally-relevantdecisionsbaseduponclosed-loopneuralstimulation.[56] TheBCIAward[edit] TheAnnualBCIResearchAwardisawardedinrecognitionofoutstandingandinnovativeresearchinthefieldofBrain-ComputerInterfaces.Eachyear,arenownedresearchlaboratoryisaskedtojudgethesubmittedprojects.Thejuryconsistsofworld-leadingBCIexpertsrecruitedbytheawardinglaboratory.Thejuryselectstwelvenominees,thenchoosesafirst,second,andthird-placewinner,whoreceiveawardsof$3,000,$2,000,and$1,000,respectively. HumanBCIresearch[edit] InvasiveBCIs[edit] InvasiveBCIrequiressurgerytoimplantelectrodesunderscalpforcommunicatingbrainsignals.Themainadvantageistoprovidemoreaccuratereading;however,itsdownsideincludessideeffectsfromthesurgery.Afterthesurgery,scartissuesmayformwhichcanmakebrainsignalsweaker.Inaddition,accordingtotheresearchofAbdulkaderetal.,(2015),[57]thebodymaynotaccepttheimplantedelectrodesandthiscancauseamedicalcondition. Vision[edit] InvasiveBCIresearchhastargetedrepairingdamagedsightandprovidingnewfunctionalityforpeoplewithparalysis.InvasiveBCIsareimplanteddirectlyintothegreymatterofthebrainduringneurosurgery.Becausetheylieinthegreymatter,invasivedevicesproducethehighestqualitysignalsofBCIdevicesbutarepronetoscar-tissuebuild-up,causingthesignaltobecomeweaker,orevennon-existent,asthebodyreactstoaforeignobjectinthebrain.[58] Invisionscience,directbrainimplantshavebeenusedtotreatnon-congenital(acquired)blindness.OneofthefirstscientiststoproduceaworkingbraininterfacetorestoresightwasprivateresearcherWilliamDobelle. Dobelle'sfirstprototypewasimplantedinto"Jerry",amanblindedinadulthood,in1978.Asingle-arrayBCIcontaining68electrodeswasimplantedontoJerry'svisualcortexandsucceededinproducingphosphenes,thesensationofseeinglight.Thesystemincludedcamerasmountedonglassestosendsignalstotheimplant.Initially,theimplantallowedJerrytoseeshadesofgreyinalimitedfieldofvisionatalowframe-rate.Thisalsorequiredhimtobehookeduptoamainframecomputer,butshrinkingelectronicsandfastercomputersmadehisartificialeyemoreportableandnowenablehimtoperformsimpletasksunassisted.[59] DummyunitillustratingthedesignofaBrainGateinterface In2002,JensNaumann,alsoblindedinadulthood,becamethefirstinaseriesof16payingpatientstoreceiveDobelle'ssecondgenerationimplant,markingoneoftheearliestcommercialusesofBCIs.Thesecondgenerationdeviceusedamoresophisticatedimplantenablingbettermappingofphosphenesintocoherentvision.Phosphenesarespreadoutacrossthevisualfieldinwhatresearcherscall"thestarry-nighteffect".Immediatelyafterhisimplant,Jenswasabletousehisimperfectlyrestoredvisiontodriveanautomobileslowlyaroundtheparkingareaoftheresearchinstitute.[60]Unfortunately,Dobellediedin2004[61]beforehisprocessesanddevelopmentsweredocumented.Subsequently,whenMr.Naumannandtheotherpatientsintheprogrambeganhavingproblemswiththeirvision,therewasnoreliefandtheyeventuallylosttheir"sight"again.NaumannwroteabouthisexperiencewithDobelle'sworkinSearchforParadise:APatient'sAccountoftheArtificialVisionExperiment[62]andhasreturnedtohisfarminSoutheastOntario,Canada,toresumehisnormalactivities.[63] Movement[edit] BCIsfocusingonmotorneuroprostheticsaimtoeitherrestoremovementinindividualswithparalysisorprovidedevicestoassistthem,suchasinterfaceswithcomputersorrobotarms. ResearchersatEmoryUniversityinAtlanta,ledbyPhilipKennedyandRoyBakay,werefirsttoinstallabrainimplantinahumanthatproducedsignalsofhighenoughqualitytosimulatemovement.Theirpatient,JohnnyRay(1944–2002),developed'locked-insyndrome'afterhavingabrain-stemstrokein1997.Ray'simplantwasinstalledin1998andhelivedlongenoughtostartworkingwiththeimplant,eventuallylearningtocontrolacomputercursor;hediedin2002ofabrainaneurysm.[64] TetraplegicMattNaglebecamethefirstpersontocontrolanartificialhandusingaBCIin2005aspartofthefirstnine-monthhumantrialofCyberkinetics'sBrainGatechip-implant.ImplantedinNagle'srightprecentralgyrus(areaofthemotorcortexforarmmovement),the96-electrodeBrainGateimplantallowedNagletocontrolaroboticarmbythinkingaboutmovinghishandaswellasacomputercursor,lightsandTV.[65]Oneyearlater,professorJonathanWolpawreceivedtheprizeoftheAltranFoundationforInnovationtodevelopaBrainComputerInterfacewithelectrodeslocatedonthesurfaceoftheskull,insteadofdirectlyinthebrain. Morerecently,researchteamsledbytheBrainGategroupatBrownUniversity[66]andagroupledbyUniversityofPittsburghMedicalCenter,[67]bothincollaborationswiththeUnitedStatesDepartmentofVeteransAffairs,havedemonstratedfurthersuccessindirectcontrolofroboticprostheticlimbswithmanydegreesoffreedomusingdirectconnectionstoarraysofneuronsinthemotorcortexofpatientswithtetraplegia. Communication[edit] InMay2021,aStanfordUniversityteamreportedasuccessfulproof-of-concepttestthatenabledaquadraplegicparticipanttoinputEnglishsentencesatabout86charactersperminuteand18wordsperminute.Theparticipantimaginedmovinghishandtowriteletters,andthesystemperformedhandwritingrecognitiononelectricalsignalsdetectedinthemotorcortex,utilizinghiddenMarkovmodelsandrecurrentneuralnetworksfordecoding.[68][69] AreportpublishedinJuly2021reportedaparalyzedpatientwasabletocommunicate15wordsperminuteusingabrainimplantthatanalyzedmotorneuronsthatpreviouslycontrolledthevocaltract.[70][51] Inarecentreviewarticle,researchersraisedanopenquestionofwhetherhumaninformationtransferratescansurpassthatoflanguagewithBCIs.Giventhatrecentlanguageresearchhasdemonstratedthathumaninformationtransferratesarerelativelyconstantacrossmanylanguages,theremayexistalimitatthelevelofinformationprocessinginthebrain.Onthecontrary,this"upperlimit"ofinformationtransferratemaybeintrinsictolanguageitself,asamodalityforinformationtransfer.[71] Technicalchallenges[edit] ThereexistanumberoftechnicalchallengestorecordingbrainactivitywithinvasiveBCIs.AdvancesinCMOStechnologyarepushingandenablingintegrated,invasiveBCIdesignswithsmallersize,lowerpowerrequirements,andhighersignalacquisitioncapabilities.[72]InvasiveBCIsinvolveelectrodesthatpenetratebraintissueinanattempttorecordactionpotentialsignals(alsoknownasspikes)fromindividual,orsmallgroupsof,neuronsneartheelectrode.TheinterfacebetweenarecordingelectrodeandtheelectrolyticsolutionsurroundingneuronshasbeenmodelledusingtheHodgkin-Huxleymodel.[73][74] ElectroniclimitationstoinvasiveBCIshavebeenanactiveareaofresearchinrecentdecades.Whileintracellularrecordingsofneuronsrevealactionpotentialvoltagesonthescaleofhundredsofmillivolts,chronicinvasiveBCIsrelyonrecordingextracellularvoltageswhichtypicallyarethreeordersofmagnitudesmaller,existingathundredsofmicrovolts.[75]Furtheraddingtothechallengeofdetectingsignalsonthescaleofmicrovoltsisthefactthattheelectrode-tissueinterfacehasahighcapacitanceatsmallvoltages.Duetothenatureofthesesmallsignals,forBCIsystemsthatincorporatefunctionalityontoanintegratedcircuit,eachelectroderequiresitsownamplifierandADC,whichconvertanalogextracellularvoltagesintodigitalsignals.[75]Becauseatypicalneuronactionpotentiallastsforonemillisecond,BCIsmeasuringspikesmusthavesamplingratesrangingfrom300 Hzto5 kHz.YetanotherconcernisthatinvasiveBCIsmustbelow-power,soastodissipatelessheattosurroundingtissue;atthemostbasiclevelmorepoweristraditionallyneededtooptimizesignal-to-noiseratio.[74]OptimalbatterydesignisanactiveareaofresearchinBCIs.[76]IllustrationofinvasiveandpartiallyinvasiveBCIs:electrocorticography(ECoG),endovascular,andintracorticalmicroelectrode.ChallengesexistingintheareaofmaterialsciencearecentraltothedesignofinvasiveBCIs.Variationsinsignalqualityovertimehavebeencommonlyobservedwithimplantablemicroelectrodes.[77][78]OptimalmaterialandmechanicalcharacteristicsforlongtermsignalstabilityininvasiveBCIshasbeenanactiveareaofresearch.[79]Ithasbeenproposedthattheformationofglialscarring,secondarytodamageattheelectrode-tissueinterface,islikelyresponsibleforelectrodefailureandreducedrecordingperformance.[80]Researchhassuggestedthatblood-brainbarrierleakage,eitheratthetimeofinsertionorovertime,mayberesponsiblefortheinflammatoryandglialreactiontochronicmicroelectrodesimplantedinthebrain.[80][81]Asaresult,flexible[82][83][84]andtissue-likedesigns[85][86]havebeenresearchedanddevelopedtominimizeforeign-bodyreactionbymeansofmatchingtheYoung'smodulusoftheelectrodeclosertothatofbraintissue.[85] PartiallyinvasiveBCIs[edit] PartiallyinvasiveBCIdevicesareimplantedinsidetheskullbutrestoutsidethebrainratherthanwithinthegreymatter.Theyproducebetterresolutionsignalsthannon-invasiveBCIswherethebonetissueofthecraniumdeflectsanddeformssignalsandhavealowerriskofformingscar-tissueinthebrainthanfullyinvasiveBCIs.TherehasbeenpreclinicaldemonstrationofintracorticalBCIsfromthestrokeperilesionalcortex.[87] Endovascular[edit] Asystematicreviewpublishedin2020detailedmultiplestudies,bothclinicalandnon-clinical,datingbackdecadesinvestigatingthefeasibilityofendovascularBCIs.[88] Inrecentyears,thebiggestadvanceinpartiallyinvasiveBCIshasemergedintheareaofinterventionalneurology.[2]In2010,researchersaffiliatedwithUniversityofMelbournehadbegundevelopingaBCIthatcouldbeinsertedviathevascularsystem.TheAustralianneurologistThomasOxley(MountSinaiHospital)conceivedtheideaforthisBCI,calledStentrode,whichhasreceivedfundingfromDARPA.Preclinicalstudiesevaluatedthetechnologyinsheep. TheStentrode,amonolithicstentelectrodearray,isdesignedtobedeliveredviaanintravenouscatheterunderimage-guidancetothesuperiorsagittalsinus,intheregionwhichliesadjacenttomotorcortex.[89]ThisproximitytomotorcortexunderliestheStentrode'sabilitytomeasureneuralactivity.Theprocedureismostsimilartohowvenoussinusstentsareplacedforthetreatmentofidiopathicintracranialhypertension.[90]TheStentrodecommunicatesneuralactivitytoabattery-lesstelemetryunitimplantedinthechest,whichcommunicateswirelesslywithanexternaltelemetryunitcapableofpoweranddatatransfer.WhileanendovascularBCIbenefitsfromavoidingcraniotomyforinsertion,riskssuchasclottingandvenousthrombosisarepossible.Inpre-clinicalanimalstudiesimplantedwithStentrode,twentyanimalsshowednoevidenceofthrombusformationafter190days,possiblyduetoendothelialincorporationoftheStentrodeintothevesselwall.[89] First-in-humantrialswiththeStentrodeareunderway.[89]InNovember2020,twoparticipantswithamyotrophiclateralsclerosiswereabletowirelesslycontrolanoperatingsystemtotext,email,shop,andbankusingdirectthoughtthroughtheStentrodebrain-computerinterface,[91]markingthefirsttimeabrain-computerinterfacewasimplantedviathepatient'sbloodvessels,eliminatingtheneedforopenbrainsurgery. ECoG[edit] Electrocorticography(ECoG)measurestheelectricalactivityofthebraintakenfrombeneaththeskullinasimilarwaytonon-invasiveelectroencephalography,buttheelectrodesareembeddedinathinplasticpadthatisplacedabovethecortex,beneaththeduramater.[92]ECoGtechnologieswerefirsttrialledinhumansin2004byEricLeuthardtandDanielMoranfromWashingtonUniversityinStLouis.Inalatertrial,theresearchersenabledateenageboytoplaySpaceInvadersusinghisECoGimplant.[93]Thisresearchindicatesthatcontrolisrapid,requiresminimaltraining,andmaybeanidealtradeoffwithregardstosignalfidelityandlevelofinvasiveness.[note1] Signalscanbeeithersubduralorepidural,butarenottakenfromwithinthebrainparenchymaitself.Ithasnotbeenstudiedextensivelyuntilrecentlyduetothelimitedaccessofsubjects.Currently,theonlymannertoacquirethesignalforstudyisthroughtheuseofpatientsrequiringinvasivemonitoringforlocalizationandresectionofanepileptogenicfocus. ECoGisaverypromisingintermediateBCImodalitybecauseithashigherspatialresolution,bettersignal-to-noiseratio,widerfrequencyrange,andlesstrainingrequirementsthanscalp-recordedEEG,andatthesametimehaslowertechnicaldifficulty,lowerclinicalrisk,andmayhavesuperiorlong-termstabilitythanintracorticalsingle-neuronrecording.[95]Thisfeatureprofileandrecentevidenceofthehighlevelofcontrolwithminimaltrainingrequirementsshowspotentialforrealworldapplicationforpeoplewithmotordisabilities.[96][97]LightreactiveimagingBCIdevicesarestillintherealmoftheory. RecentworkpublishedbyEdwardChangandJosephMakinfromUCSFrevealedthatECoGsignalscouldbeusedtodecodespeechfromepilepsypatientsimplantedwithhigh-densityECoGarraysovertheperi-Sylviancortices.[98][99]Theirstudyachievedworderrorratesof3%(amarkedimprovementfrompriorpublications)utilizinganencoder-decoderneuralnetwork,whichtranslatedECoGdataintooneoffiftysentencescomposedof250uniquewords. Non-invasiveBCIs[edit] Therehavealsobeenexperimentsinhumansusingnon-invasiveneuroimagingtechnologiesasinterfaces.ThesubstantialmajorityofpublishedBCIworkinvolvesnoninvasiveEEG-basedBCIs.NoninvasiveEEG-basedtechnologiesandinterfaceshavebeenusedforamuchbroadervarietyofapplications.AlthoughEEG-basedinterfacesareeasytowearanddonotrequiresurgery,theyhaverelativelypoorspatialresolutionandcannoteffectivelyusehigher-frequencysignalsbecausetheskulldampenssignals,dispersingandblurringtheelectromagneticwavescreatedbytheneurons.EEG-basedinterfacesalsorequiresometimeandeffortpriortoeachusagesession,whereasnon-EEG-basedones,aswellasinvasiveonesrequirenoprior-usagetraining.Overall,thebestBCIforeachuserdependsonnumerousfactors. Non-EEG-basedhuman–computerinterface[edit] Electrooculography(EOG)[edit] In1989,areportwasgivenoncontrolofamobilerobotbyeyemovementusingelectrooculography(EOG)signals.AmobilerobotwasdrivenfromastarttoagoalpointusingfiveEOGcommands,interpretedasforward,backward,left,right,andstop.[100]TheEOGasachallengeofcontrollingexternalobjectswaspresentedbyVidalinhis1973paper.[3] Pupil-sizeoscillation[edit] A2016article[101]describedanentirelynewcommunicationdeviceandnon-EEG-basedhuman-computerinterface,whichrequiresnovisualfixation,orabilitytomovetheeyesatall.Theinterfaceisbasedoncovertinterest;directingone'sattentiontoachosenletteronavirtualkeyboard,withouttheneedtomoveone'seyestolookdirectlyattheletter.Eachletterhasitsown(background)circlewhichmicro-oscillatesinbrightnessdifferentlyfromalloftheotherletters.Theletterselectionisbasedonbestfitbetweenunintentionalpupil-sizeoscillationandthebackgroundcircle'sbrightnessoscillationpattern.Accuracyisadditionallyimprovedbytheuser'smentalrehearsingofthewords'bright'and'dark'insynchronywiththebrightnesstransitionsoftheletter'scircle. Functionalnear-infraredspectroscopy[edit] In2014and2017,aBCIusingfunctionalnear-infraredspectroscopyfor"locked-in"patientswithamyotrophiclateralsclerosis(ALS)wasabletorestoresomebasicabilityofthepatientstocommunicatewithotherpeople.[102][103] Electroencephalography(EEG)-basedbrain-computerinterfaces[edit] Recordingsofbrainwavesproducedbyanelectroencephalogram AftertheBCIchallengewasstatedbyVidalin1973,theinitialreportsonnon-invasiveapproachincludedcontrolofacursorin2DusingVEP(Vidal1977),controlofabuzzerusingCNV(Bozinovskaetal.1988,1990),controlofaphysicalobject,arobot,usingabrainrhythm(alpha)(Bozinovskietal.1988),controlofatextwrittenonascreenusingP300(FarwellandDonchin,1988).[14] IntheearlydaysofBCIresearch,anothersubstantialbarriertousingelectroencephalography(EEG)asabrain–computerinterfacewastheextensivetrainingrequiredbeforeuserscanworkthetechnology.Forexample,inexperimentsbeginninginthemid-1990s,NielsBirbaumerattheUniversityofTübingeninGermanytrainedseverelyparalysedpeopletoself-regulatetheslowcorticalpotentialsintheirEEGtosuchanextentthatthesesignalscouldbeusedasabinarysignaltocontrolacomputercursor.[104](Birbaumerhadearliertrainedepilepticstopreventimpendingfitsbycontrollingthislowvoltagewave.)Theexperimentsawtenpatientstrainedtomoveacomputercursorbycontrollingtheirbrainwaves.Theprocesswasslow,requiringmorethananhourforpatientstowrite100characterswiththecursor,whiletrainingoftentookmanymonths.However,theslowcorticalpotentialapproachtoBCIshasnotbeenusedinseveralyears,sinceotherapproachesrequirelittleornotraining,arefasterandmoreaccurate,andworkforagreaterproportionofusers. Anotherresearchparameteristhetypeofoscillatoryactivitythatismeasured.GertPfurtschellerfoundedtheBCILab1991andfedhisresearchresultsonmotorimageryinthefirstonlineBCIbasedonoscillatoryfeaturesandclassifiers.TogetherwithBirbaumerandJonathanWolpawatNewYorkStateUniversitytheyfocusedondevelopingtechnologythatwouldallowuserstochoosethebrainsignalstheyfoundeasiesttooperateaBCI,includingmuandbetarhythms. AfurtherparameteristhemethodoffeedbackusedandthisisshowninstudiesofP300signals.PatternsofP300wavesaregeneratedinvoluntarily(stimulus-feedback)whenpeopleseesomethingtheyrecognizeandmayallowBCIstodecodecategoriesofthoughtswithouttrainingpatientsfirst.Bycontrast,thebiofeedbackmethodsdescribedaboverequirelearningtocontrolbrainwavessotheresultingbrainactivitycanbedetected. In2005itwasreportedresearchonEEGemulationofdigitalcontrolcircuitsforBCI,withexampleofaCNVflip-flop.[105]In2009itwasreportednoninvasiveEEGcontrolofaroboticarmusingaCNVflip-flop.[106]In2011itwasreportedcontroloftworoboticarmssolvingTowerofHanoitaskwiththreedisksusingaCNVflip-flop.[107]In2015itwasdescribedEEG-emulationofaSchmitttrigger,flip-flop,demultiplexer,andmodem.[108] WhileanEEGbasedbrain-computerinterfacehasbeenpursuedextensivelybyanumberofresearchlabs,recentadvancementsmadebyBinHeandhisteamattheUniversityofMinnesotasuggestthepotentialofanEEGbasedbrain-computerinterfacetoaccomplishtasksclosetoinvasivebrain-computerinterface.UsingadvancedfunctionalneuroimagingincludingBOLDfunctionalMRIandEEGsourceimaging,BinHeandco-workersidentifiedtheco-variationandco-localizationofelectrophysiologicalandhemodynamicsignalsinducedbymotorimagination.[109] Refinedbyaneuroimagingapproachandbyatrainingprotocol,BinHeandco-workersdemonstratedtheabilityofanon-invasiveEEGbasedbrain-computerinterfacetocontroltheflightofavirtualhelicopterin3-dimensionalspace,baseduponmotorimagination.[110]InJune2013itwasannouncedthatBinHehaddevelopedthetechniquetoenablearemote-controlhelicoptertobeguidedthroughanobstaclecourse.[111] Inadditiontoabrain-computerinterfacebasedonbrainwaves,asrecordedfromscalpEEGelectrodes,BinHeandco-workersexploredavirtualEEGsignal-basedbrain-computerinterfacebyfirstsolvingtheEEGinverseproblemandthenusedtheresultingvirtualEEGforbrain-computerinterfacetasks.Well-controlledstudiessuggestedthemeritsofsuchasourceanalysisbasedbrain-computerinterface.[112] A2014studyfoundthatseverelymotor-impairedpatientscouldcommunicatefasterandmorereliablywithnon-invasiveEEGBCI,thanwithanymuscle-basedcommunicationchannel.[113] A2016studyfoundthattheEmotivEPOCdevicemaybemoresuitableforcontroltasksusingtheattention/meditationleveloreyeblinkingthantheNeuroskyMindWavedevice.[114] A2019studyfoundthattheapplicationofevolutionaryalgorithmscouldimproveEEGmentalstateclassificationwithanon-invasiveMusedevice,enablinghighqualityclassificationofdataacquiredbyacheapconsumer-gradeEEGsensingdevice.[115] Ina2021systematicreviewofrandomizedcontrolledtrialsusingBCIforupper-limbrehabilitationafterstroke,EEG-basedBCIwasfoundtohavesignificantefficacyinimprovingupper-limbmotorfunctioncomparedtocontroltherapies.Morespecifically,BCIstudiesthatutilizedbandpowerfeatures,motorimagery,andfunctionalelectricalstimulationintheirdesignwerefoundtobemoreefficaciousthanalternatives.[116]Another2021systematicreviewfocusedonrobotic-assistedEEG-basedBCIforhandrehabilitationafterstroke.Improvementinmotorassessmentscoreswasobservedinthreeofelevenstudiesincludedinthesystematicreview.[117] Dryactiveelectrodearrays[edit] Intheearly1990sBabakTaheri,atUniversityofCalifornia,Davisdemonstratedthefirstsingleandalsomultichanneldryactiveelectrodearraysusingmicro-machining.ThesinglechanneldryEEGelectrodeconstructionandresultswerepublishedin1994.[118]Thearrayedelectrodewasalsodemonstratedtoperformwellcomparedtosilver/silverchlorideelectrodes.Thedeviceconsistedoffoursitesofsensorswithintegratedelectronicstoreducenoisebyimpedancematching.Theadvantagesofsuchelectrodesare:(1)noelectrolyteused,(2)noskinpreparation,(3)significantlyreducedsensorsize,and(4)compatibilitywithEEGmonitoringsystems.Theactiveelectrodearrayisanintegratedsystemmadeofanarrayofcapacitivesensorswithlocalintegratedcircuitryhousedinapackagewithbatteriestopowerthecircuitry.Thislevelofintegrationwasrequiredtoachievethefunctionalperformanceobtainedbytheelectrode. TheelectrodewastestedonanelectricaltestbenchandonhumansubjectsinfourmodalitiesofEEGactivity,namely:(1)spontaneousEEG,(2)sensoryevent-relatedpotentials,(3)brainstempotentials,and(4)cognitiveevent-relatedpotentials.Theperformanceofthedryelectrodecomparedfavorablywiththatofthestandardwetelectrodesintermsofskinpreparation,nogelrequirements(dry),andhighersignal-to-noiseratio.[119] In1999researchersatCaseWesternReserveUniversity,inCleveland,Ohio,ledbyHunterPeckham,used64-electrodeEEGskullcaptoreturnlimitedhandmovementstoquadriplegicJimJatich.AsJatichconcentratedonsimplebutoppositeconceptslikeupanddown,hisbeta-rhythmEEGoutputwasanalysedusingsoftwaretoidentifypatternsinthenoise.Abasicpatternwasidentifiedandusedtocontrolaswitch:Aboveaverageactivitywassettoon,belowaverageoff.AswellasenablingJatichtocontrolacomputercursorthesignalswerealsousedtodrivethenervecontrollersembeddedinhishands,restoringsomemovement.[120] SSVEPmobileEEGBCIs[edit] In2009,theNCTUBrain-Computer-Interface-headbandwasreported.TheresearcherswhodevelopedthisBCI-headbandalsoengineeredsilicon-basedmicroelectro-mechanicalsystem(MEMS)dryelectrodesdesignedforapplicationinnon-hairysitesofthebody.TheseelectrodesweresecuredtotheDAQboardintheheadbandwithsnap-onelectrodeholders.ThesignalprocessingmodulemeasuredalphaactivityandtheBluetoothenabledphoneassessedthepatients'alertnessandcapacityforcognitiveperformance.Whenthesubjectbecamedrowsy,thephonesentarousingfeedbacktotheoperatortorousethem.ThisresearchwassupportedbytheNationalScienceCouncil,Taiwan,R.O.C.,NSC,NationalChiao-TungUniversity,Taiwan'sMinistryofEducation,andtheU.S.ArmyResearchLaboratory.[121] In2011,researchersreportedacellularbasedBCIwiththecapabilityoftakingEEGdataandconvertingitintoacommandtocausethephonetoring.ThisresearchwassupportedinpartbyAbraxisBioscienceLLP,theU.S.ArmyResearchLaboratory,andtheArmyResearchOffice.Thedevelopedtechnologywasawearablesystemcomposedofafourchannelbio-signalacquisition/amplificationmodule,awirelesstransmissionmodule,andaBluetoothenabledcellphone. Theelectrodeswereplacedsothattheypickupsteadystatevisualevokedpotentials(SSVEPs).[122]SSVEPsareelectricalresponsestoflickeringvisualstimuliwithrepetitionratesover6 Hz[122]thatarebestfoundintheparietalandoccipitalscalpregionsofthevisualcortex.[123][124][125]ItwasreportedthatwiththisBCIsetup,allstudyparticipantswereabletoinitiatethephonecallwithminimalpracticeinnaturalenvironments.[126] ThescientistsclaimthattheirstudiesusingasinglechannelfastFouriertransform(FFT)andmultiplechannelsystemcanonicalcorrelationanalysis(CCA)algorithmsupportthecapacityofmobileBCIs.[122][127]TheCCAalgorithmhasbeenappliedinotherexperimentsinvestigatingBCIswithclaimedhighperformanceinaccuracyaswellasspeed.[128]WhilethecellularbasedBCItechnologywasdevelopedtoinitiateaphonecallfromSSVEPs,theresearcherssaidthatitcanbetranslatedforotherapplications,suchaspickingupsensorimotormu/betarhythmstofunctionasamotor-imagerybasedBCI.[122] In2013,comparativetestswereperformedonandroidcellphone,tablet,andcomputerbasedBCIs,analyzingthepowerspectrumdensityofresultantEEGSSVEPs.Thestatedgoalsofthisstudy,whichinvolvedscientistssupportedinpartbytheU.S.ArmyResearchLaboratory,wereto"increasethepracticability,portability,andubiquityofanSSVEP-basedBCI,fordailyuse".CitationItwasreportedthatthestimulationfrequencyonallmediumswasaccurate,althoughthecellphone'ssignaldemonstratedsomeinstability.TheamplitudesoftheSSVEPsforthelaptopandtabletwerealsoreportedtobelargerthanthoseofthecellphone.ThesetwoqualitativecharacterizationsweresuggestedasindicatorsofthefeasibilityofusingamobilestimulusBCI.[127] Limitations[edit] In2011,researchersstatedthatcontinuedworkshouldaddresseaseofuse,performancerobustness,reducinghardwareandsoftwarecosts.[122] OneofthedifficultieswithEEGreadingsisthelargesusceptibilitytomotionartifacts.[129]Inmostofthepreviouslydescribedresearchprojects,theparticipantswereaskedtositstill,reducingheadandeyemovementsasmuchaspossible,andmeasurementsweretakeninalaboratorysetting.However,sincetheemphasizedapplicationoftheseinitiativeshadbeenincreatingamobiledevicefordailyuse,[127]thetechnologyhadtobetestedinmotion. In2013,researcherstestedmobileEEG-basedBCItechnology,measuringSSVEPsfromparticipantsastheywalkedonatreadmillatvaryingspeeds.ThisresearchwassupportedbytheOfficeofNavalResearch,ArmyResearchOffice,andtheU.S.ArmyResearchLaboratory.StatedresultswerethatasspeedincreasedtheSSVEPdetectabilityusingCCAdecreased.Asindependentcomponentanalysis(ICA)hadbeenshowntobeefficientinseparatingEEGsignalsfromnoise,[130]thescientistsappliedICAtoCCAextractedEEGdata.TheystatedthattheCCAdatawithandwithoutICAprocessingweresimilar.Thus,theyconcludedthatCCAindependentlydemonstratedarobustnesstomotionartifactsthatindicatesitmaybeabeneficialalgorithmtoapplytoBCIsusedinrealworldconditions.[124] Prosthesisandenvironmentcontrol[edit] Non-invasiveBCIshavealsobeenappliedtoenablebrain-controlofprostheticupperandlowerextremitydevicesinpeoplewithparalysis.Forexample,GertPfurtschellerofGrazUniversityofTechnologyandcolleaguesdemonstratedaBCI-controlledfunctionalelectricalstimulationsystemtorestoreupperextremitymovementsinapersonwithtetraplegiaduetospinalcordinjury.[131]Between2012and2013,researchersattheUniversityofCalifornia,IrvinedemonstratedforthefirsttimethatitispossibletouseBCItechnologytorestorebrain-controlledwalkingafterspinalcordinjury.Intheirspinalcordinjuryresearchstudy,apersonwithparaplegiawasabletooperateaBCI-roboticgaitorthosistoregainbasicbrain-controlledambulation.[132][133] In2009AlexBlainey,anindependentresearcherbasedintheUK,successfullyusedtheEmotivEPOCtocontrola5axisrobotarm.[134]Hethenwentontomakeseveraldemonstrationmindcontrolledwheelchairsandhomeautomationthatcouldbeoperatedbypeoplewithlimitedornomotorcontrolsuchasthosewithparaplegiaandcerebralpalsy. ResearchintomilitaryuseofBCIsfundedbyDARPAhasbeenongoingsincethe1970s.[3][4]Thecurrentfocusofresearchisuser-to-usercommunicationthroughanalysisofneuralsignals.[135] DIYandopensourceBCI[edit] In2001,TheOpenEEGProject[136]wasinitiatedbyagroupofDIYneuroscientistsandengineers.TheModularEEGwastheprimarydevicecreatedbytheOpenEEGcommunity;itwasa6-channelsignalcaptureboardthatcostbetween$200and$400tomakeathome.TheOpenEEGProjectmarkedasignificantmomentintheemergenceofDIYbrain-computerinterfacing. In2010,theFrontierNerdsofNYU'sITPprogrampublishedathoroughtutorialtitledHowToHackToyEEGs.[137]Thetutorial,whichstirredthemindsofmanybuddingDIYBCIenthusiasts,demonstratedhowtocreateasinglechannelat-homeEEGwithanArduinoandaMattelMindflexataveryreasonableprice.ThistutorialamplifiedtheDIYBCImovement. In2013,OpenBCIemergedfromaDARPAsolicitationandsubsequentKickstartercampaign.Theycreatedahigh-quality,open-source8-channelEEGacquisitionboard,knownasthe32bitBoard,thatretailedforunder$500.Twoyearslatertheycreatedthefirst3D-printedEEGHeadset,knownastheUltracortex,aswellasa4-channelEEGacquisitionboard,knownastheGanglionBoard,thatretailedforunder$100. MEGandMRI[edit] Mainarticles:MagnetoencephalographyandMagneticresonanceimaging ATRLabs'reconstructionofhumanvisionusingfMRI(toprow:originalimage;bottomrow:reconstructionfrommeanofcombinedreadings) Magnetoencephalography(MEG)andfunctionalmagneticresonanceimaging(fMRI)havebothbeenusedsuccessfullyasnon-invasiveBCIs.[138]Inawidelyreportedexperiment,fMRIallowedtwousersbeingscannedtoplayPonginreal-timebyalteringtheirhaemodynamicresponseorbrainbloodflowthroughbiofeedbacktechniques.[139] fMRImeasurementsofhaemodynamicresponsesinrealtimehavealsobeenusedtocontrolrobotarmswithaseven-seconddelaybetweenthoughtandmovement.[140] In2008researchdevelopedintheAdvancedTelecommunicationsResearch(ATR)ComputationalNeuroscienceLaboratoriesinKyoto,Japan,allowedthescientiststoreconstructimagesdirectlyfromthebrainanddisplaythemonacomputerinblackandwhiteataresolutionof10x10pixels.ThearticleannouncingtheseachievementswasthecoverstoryofthejournalNeuronof10December2008.[141] In2011researchersfromUCBerkeleypublished[142]astudyreportingsecond-by-secondreconstructionofvideoswatchedbythestudy'ssubjects,fromfMRIdata.Thiswasachievedbycreatingastatisticalmodelrelatingvisualpatternsinvideosshowntothesubjects,tothebrainactivitycausedbywatchingthevideos.Thismodelwasthenusedtolookupthe100one-secondvideosegments,inadatabaseof18millionsecondsofrandomYouTubevideos,whosevisualpatternsmostcloselymatchedthebrainactivityrecordedwhensubjectswatchedanewvideo.These100one-secondvideoextractswerethencombinedintoamashed-upimagethatresembledthevideobeingwatched.[143][144][145] BCIcontrolstrategiesinneurogaming[edit] Motorimagery[edit] Motorimageryinvolvestheimaginationofthemovementofvariousbodypartsresultinginsensorimotorcortexactivation,whichmodulatessensorimotoroscillationsintheEEG.ThiscanbedetectedbytheBCItoinferauser'sintent.MotorimagerytypicallyrequiresanumberofsessionsoftrainingbeforeacceptablecontroloftheBCIisacquired.Thesetrainingsessionsmaytakeanumberofhoursoverseveraldaysbeforeuserscanconsistentlyemploythetechniquewithacceptablelevelsofprecision.Regardlessofthedurationofthetrainingsession,usersareunabletomasterthecontrolscheme.Thisresultsinveryslowpaceofthegameplay.[146]Advancedmachinelearningmethodswererecentlydevelopedtocomputeasubject-specificmodelfordetectingtheperformanceofmotorimagery.ThetopperformingalgorithmfromBCICompetitionIV[147]dataset2formotorimageryistheFilterBankCommonSpatialPattern,developedbyAngetal.fromA*STAR,Singapore.[148] Bio/neurofeedbackforpassiveBCIdesigns[edit] Biofeedbackisusedtomonitorasubject'smentalrelaxation.Insomecases,biofeedbackdoesnotmonitorelectroencephalography(EEG),butinsteadbodilyparameterssuchaselectromyography(EMG),galvanicskinresistance(GSR),andheartratevariability(HRV).Manybiofeedbacksystemsareusedtotreatcertaindisorderssuchasattentiondeficithyperactivitydisorder(ADHD),sleepproblemsinchildren,teethgrinding,andchronicpain.EEGbiofeedbacksystemstypicallymonitorfourdifferentbands(theta:4–7 Hz,alpha:8–12 Hz,SMR:12–15 Hz,beta:15–18 Hz)andchallengethesubjecttocontrolthem.PassiveBCI[55]involvesusingBCItoenrichhuman–machineinteractionwithimplicitinformationontheactualuser'sstate,forexample,simulationstodetectwhenusersintendtopushbrakesduringanemergencycarstoppingprocedure.GamedevelopersusingpassiveBCIsneedtoacknowledgethatthroughrepetitionofgamelevelstheuser'scognitivestatewillchangeoradapt.Withinthefirstplay ofalevel,theuserwillreacttothingsdifferentlyfromduringthesecondplay:forexample,theuserwillbelesssurprisedataneventinthegameiftheyareexpectingit.[146] Visualevokedpotential(VEP)[edit] AVEPisanelectricalpotentialrecordedafterasubjectispresentedwithatypeofvisualstimuli.ThereareseveraltypesofVEPs. Steady-statevisuallyevokedpotentials(SSVEPs)usepotentialsgeneratedbyexcitingtheretina,usingvisualstimulimodulatedatcertainfrequencies.SSVEP'sstimuliareoftenformedfromalternatingcheckerboardpatternsandattimessimplyuseflashingimages.ThefrequencyofthephasereversalofthestimulususedcanbeclearlydistinguishedinthespectrumofanEEG;thismakesdetectionofSSVEPstimulirelativelyeasy.SSVEPhasprovedtobesuccessfulwithinmanyBCIsystems.Thisisduetoseveralfactors,thesignalelicitedismeasurableinaslargeapopulationasthetransientVEPandblinkmovementandelectrocardiographicartefactsdonotaffectthefrequenciesmonitored.Inaddition,theSSVEPsignalisexceptionallyrobust;thetopographicorganizationoftheprimaryvisualcortexissuchthatabroaderareaobtainsafferentsfromthecentralorfovialregionofthevisualfield.SSVEPdoeshaveseveralproblemshowever.AsSSVEPsuseflashingstimulitoinferauser'sintent,theusermustgazeatoneoftheflashingoriteratingsymbolsinordertointeractwiththesystem.Itis,therefore,likelythatthesymbolscouldbecomeirritatinganduncomfortabletouseduringlongerplaysessions,whichcanoftenlastmorethananhourwhichmaynotbeanidealgameplay. AnothertypeofVEPusedwithapplicationsistheP300potential.TheP300event-relatedpotentialisapositivepeakintheEEGthatoccursatroughly300msaftertheappearanceofatargetstimulus(astimulusforwhichtheuseriswaitingorseeking)oroddballstimuli.TheP300amplitudedecreasesasthetargetstimuliandtheignoredstimuligrowmoresimilar.TheP300isthoughttoberelatedtoahigherlevelattentionprocessoranorientingresponseusingP300asacontrolschemehastheadvantageoftheparticipantonlyhavingtoattendlimitedtrainingsessions.ThefirstapplicationtousetheP300modelwastheP300matrix.Withinthissystem,asubjectwouldchoosealetterfromagridof6by6lettersandnumbers.Therowsandcolumnsofthegridflashedsequentiallyandeverytimetheselected"choiceletter"wasilluminatedtheuser'sP300was(potentially)elicited.However,thecommunicationprocess,atapproximately17charactersperminute,wasquiteslow.TheP300isaBCIthatoffersadiscreteselectionratherthanacontinuouscontrolmechanism.TheadvantageofP300usewithingamesisthattheplayerdoesnothavetoteachhimself/herselfhowtouseacompletelynewcontrolsystemandsoonlyhastoundertakeshorttraininginstances,tolearnthegameplaymechanicsandbasicuseoftheBCIparadigm.[146] Synthetictelepathy/silentcommunication[edit] Ina$6.3millionUSArmyinitiativetoinventdevicesfortelepathiccommunication,GerwinSchalk,underwrittenina$2.2milliongrant,foundtheuseofECoGsignalscandiscriminatethevowelsandconsonantsembeddedinspokenandimaginedwords,sheddinglightonthedistinctmechanismsassociatedwithproductionofvowelsandconsonants,andcouldprovidethebasisforbrain-basedcommunicationusingimaginedspeech.[97][149] In2002KevinWarwickhadanarrayof100electrodesfiredintohisnervoussysteminordertolinkhisnervoussystemintotheInternettoinvestigateenhancementpossibilities.WiththisinplaceWarwicksuccessfullycarriedoutaseriesofexperiments.Withelectrodesalsoimplantedintohiswife'snervoussystem,theyconductedthefirstdirectelectroniccommunicationexperimentbetweenthenervoussystemsoftwohumans.[150][151][152][153] Anothergroupofresearcherswasabletoachieveconsciousbrain-to-braincommunicationbetweentwopeopleseparatedbyadistanceusingnon-invasivetechnologythatwasincontactwiththescalpoftheparticipants.Thewordswereencodedbybinarystreamsusingthesequencesof0'sand1'sbytheimaginarymotorinputoftheperson"emitting"theinformation.Astheresultofthisexperiment,pseudo-randombitsoftheinformationcarriedencodedwords"hola"("hi"inSpanish)and"ciao"("goodbye"inItalian)andweretransmittedmind-to-mindbetweenhumansseparatedbyadistance,withblockedmotorandsensorysystems,whichhaslowtonoprobabilityofthishappeningbychance.[2] ResearchintosynthetictelepathyusingsubvocalizationistakingplaceattheUniversityofCalifornia,IrvineunderleadscientistMikeD'Zmura.Thefirstsuchcommunicationtookplaceinthe1960susingEEGtocreateMorsecodeusingbrainalphawaves.UsingEEGtocommunicateimaginedspeechislessaccuratethantheinvasivemethodofplacinganelectrodebetweentheskullandthebrain.[154][155]On27February2013thegroupwithMiguelNicolelisatDukeUniversityandIINN-ELSsuccessfullyconnectedthebrainsoftworatswithelectronicinterfacesthatallowedthemtodirectlyshareinformation,inthefirst-everdirectbrain-to-braininterface.[156][157][158] Cell-cultureBCIs[edit] Mainarticle:Culturedneuronalnetwork Researchershavebuiltdevicestointerfacewithneuralcellsandentireneuralnetworksinculturesoutsideanimals.Aswellasfurtheringresearchonanimalimplantabledevices,experimentsonculturedneuraltissuehavefocusedonbuildingproblem-solvingnetworks,constructingbasiccomputersandmanipulatingroboticdevices.Researchintotechniquesforstimulatingandrecordingfromindividualneuronsgrownonsemiconductorchipsissometimesreferredtoasneuroelectronicsorneurochips.[159] Theworld'sfirstNeurochip,developedbyCaltechresearchersJeromePineandMichaelMaher DevelopmentofthefirstworkingneurochipwasclaimedbyaCaltechteamledbyJeromePineandMichaelMaherin1997.[160]TheCaltechchiphadroomfor16neurons. In2003ateamledbyTheodoreBerger,attheUniversityofSouthernCalifornia,startedworkonaneurochipdesignedtofunctionasanartificialorprosthetichippocampus.Theneurochipwasdesignedtofunctioninratbrainsandwasintendedasaprototypefortheeventualdevelopmentofhigher-brainprosthesis.Thehippocampuswaschosenbecauseitisthoughttobethemostorderedandstructuredpartofthebrainandisthemoststudiedarea.Itsfunctionistoencodeexperiencesforstorageaslong-termmemorieselsewhereinthebrain.[161] In2004ThomasDeMarseattheUniversityofFloridausedacultureof25,000neuronstakenfromarat'sbraintoflyaF-22fighterjetaircraftsimulator.[162]Aftercollection,thecorticalneuronswereculturedinapetridishandrapidlybegantoreconnectthemselvestoformalivingneuralnetwork.Thecellswerearrangedoveragridof60electrodesandusedtocontrolthepitchandyawfunctionsofthesimulator.Thestudy'sfocuswasonunderstandinghowthehumanbrainperformsandlearnscomputationaltasksatacellularlevel. CollaborativeBCIs[edit] Theideaofcombining/integratingbrainsignalsfrommultipleindividualswasintroducedatHumanity+@Caltech,inDecember2010,byaCaltechresearcheratJPL,AdrianStoica;Stoicareferredtotheconceptasmulti-brainaggregation.[163][164][165]AprovisionalpatentapplicationwasfiledonJanuary19,2011,withthenon-provisionalpatentfollowingoneyearlater.[166]InMay2011,YijunWangandTzyy-PingJungpublished,"ACollaborativeBrain-ComputerInterfaceforImprovingHumanPerformance",andinJanuary2012MiguelEcksteinpublished,"Neuraldecodingofcollectivewisdomwithmulti-braincomputing".[167][168]Stoica'sfirstpaperonthetopicappearedin2012,afterthepublicationofhispatentapplication.[169]Giventhetimingofthepublicationsbetweenthepatentandpapers,Stoica,Wang&Jung,andEcksteinindependentlypioneeredtheconcept,andareallconsideredasfoundersofthefield.Later,StoicawouldcollaboratewithUniversityofEssexresearchers,RiccardoPoliandCaterinaCinel.[170][171]TheworkwascontinuedbyPoliandCinel,andtheirstudents:AnaMatran-Fernandez,DavideValeriani,andSaugatBhattacharyya.[172][173][174] Ethicalconsiderations[edit] Sources:[175][176][177][178][179] User-centricissues[edit] Long-termeffectstotheuserremainlargelyunknown. Obtaininginformedconsentfrompeoplewhohavedifficultycommunicating. TheconsequencesofBCItechnologyforthequalityoflifeofpatientsandtheirfamilies. Health-relatedside-effects(e.g.neurofeedbackofsensorimotorrhythmtrainingisreportedtoaffectsleepquality). Therapeuticapplicationsandtheirpotentialmisuse. Safetyrisks Non-convertibilityofsomeofthechangesmadetothebrain Legalandsocial[edit] Issuesofaccountabilityandresponsibility:claimsthattheinfluenceofBCIsoverridesfreewillandcontroloversensory-motoractions,claimsthatcognitiveintentionwasinaccuratelytranslatedduetoaBCImalfunction. Personalitychangesinvolvedcausedbydeep-brainstimulation. Concernsregardingthestateofbecominga"cyborg"-havingpartsofthebodythatarelivingandpartsthataremechanical. Questionspersonality:whatdoesitmeantobeahuman? Blurringofthedivisionbetweenhumanandmachineandinabilitytodistinguishbetweenhumanvs.machine-controlledactions. Useofthetechnologyinadvancedinterrogationtechniquesbygovernmentalauthorities. Selectiveenhancementandsocialstratification. Questionsofresearchethicsregardinganimalexperimentation Questionsofresearchethicsthatarisewhenprogressingfromanimalexperimentationtoapplicationinhumansubjects. Moralquestions Mindreadingandprivacy. Trackingand"taggingsystem" Mindcontrol. Movementcontrol Emotioncontrol Intheircurrentform,mostBCIsarefarremovedfromtheethicalissuesconsideredabove.Theyareactuallysimilartocorrectivetherapiesinfunction.Clausenstatedin2009that"BCIsposeethicalchallenges,buttheseareconceptuallysimilartothosethatbioethicistshaveaddressedforotherrealmsoftherapy".[175]Moreover,hesuggeststhatbioethicsiswell-preparedtodealwiththeissuesthatarisewithBCItechnologies.Haselagerandcolleagues[176]pointedoutthatexpectationsofBCIefficacyandvalueplayagreatroleinethicalanalysisandthewayBCIscientistsshouldapproachmedia.Furthermore,standardprotocolscanbeimplementedtoensureethicallysoundinformed-consentprocedureswithlocked-inpatients. ThecaseofBCIstodayhasparallelsinmedicine,aswillitsevolution.Similartohowpharmaceuticalsciencebeganasabalanceforimpairmentsandisnowusedtoincreasefocusandreduceneedforsleep,BCIswilllikelytransformgraduallyfromtherapiestoenhancements.[178]EffortsaremadeinsidetheBCIcommunitytocreateconsensusonethicalguidelinesforBCIresearch,developmentanddissemination.[179]Asinnovationcontinues,ensuringequitableaccesstoBCIswillbecrucial,failingwhichgenerationalinequalitiescanarisewhichcanadverselyaffecttherighttohumanflourishing.[180] TheethicalconsiderationsofBCIsareessentialtothedevelopmentoffutureimplanteddevices.End-users,ethicists,researchers,fundingagencies,physicians,corporations,andallothersinvolvedinBCIuseshouldconsidertheanticipated,andunanticipated,changesthatBCIswillhaveonhumanautonomy,identity,privacy,andmore.[71] Low-costBCI-basedinterfaces[edit] Mainarticle:Consumerbrain–computerinterfaces RecentlyanumberofcompanieshavescaledbackmedicalgradeEEGtechnologytocreateinexpensiveBCIsforresearchaswellasentertainmentpurposes.Forexample,toyssuchastheNeuroSkyandMattelMindFlexhaveseensomecommercialsuccess. In2006Sonypatentedaneuralinterfacesystemallowingradiowavestoaffectsignalsintheneuralcortex.[181] In2007NeuroSkyreleasedthefirstaffordableconsumerbasedEEGalongwiththegameNeuroBoy.ThiswasalsothefirstlargescaleEEGdevicetousedrysensortechnology.[182] In2008OCZTechnologydevelopedadeviceforuseinvideogamesrelyingprimarilyonelectromyography.[183] In2008FinalFantasydeveloperSquareEnixannouncedthatitwaspartneringwithNeuroSkytocreateagame,Judecca.[184][185] In2009MattelpartneredwithNeuroSkytoreleasetheMindflex,agamethatusedanEEGtosteeraballthroughanobstaclecourse.ItisbyfarthebestsellingconsumerbasedEEGtodate.[184][186] In2009UncleMiltonIndustriespartneredwithNeuroSkytoreleasetheStarWarsForceTrainer,agamedesignedtocreatetheillusionofpossessingtheForce.[184][187] In2009EmotivreleasedtheEPOC,a14channelEEGdevicethatcanread4mentalstates,13consciousstates,facialexpressions,andheadmovements.TheEPOCisthefirstcommercialBCItousedrysensortechnology,whichcanbedampenedwithasalinesolutionforabetterconnection.[188] InNovember2011Timemagazineselected"necomimi"producedbyNeurowearasoneofthebestinventionsoftheyear.Thecompanyannouncedthatitexpectedtolaunchaconsumerversionofthegarment,consistingofcatlikeearscontrolledbyabrain-wavereaderproducedbyNeuroSky,inspring2012.[189] InFebruary2014TheyShallWalk(anonprofitorganizationfixedonconstructingexoskeletons,dubbedLIFESUITs,forparaplegicsandquadriplegics)beganapartnershipwithJamesW.ShakarjionthedevelopmentofawirelessBCI.[190] In2016,agroupofhobbyistsdevelopedanopen-sourceBCIboardthatsendsneuralsignalstotheaudiojackofasmartphone,droppingthecostofentry-levelBCIto£20.[191]BasicdiagnosticsoftwareisavailableforAndroiddevices,aswellasatextentryappforUnity.[192] In2020,NextMindreleasedadevkitincludinganEEGheadsetwithdryelectrodesat$399.[193][194]ThedevicecanbeplayedwithsomedemoapplicationsordeveloperscancreatetheirownusecasesusingtheprovidedSoftwareDevelopmentKit. Futuredirections[edit] Brain-computerinterface Aconsortiumconsistingof12EuropeanpartnershascompletedaroadmaptosupporttheEuropeanCommissionintheirfundingdecisionsforthenewframeworkprogramHorizon2020.Theproject,whichwasfundedbytheEuropeanCommission,startedinNovember2013andpublishedaroadmapinApril2015.[195]A2015publicationledbyDr.ClemensBrunnerdescribessomeoftheanalysesandachievementsofthisproject,aswellastheemergingBrain-ComputerInterfaceSociety.[196]Forexample,thisarticlereviewedworkwithinthisprojectthatfurtherdefinedBCIsandapplications,exploredrecenttrends,discussedethicalissues,andevaluateddifferentdirectionsfornewBCIs. OtherrecentpublicationstoohaveexploredfutureBCIdirectionsfornewgroupsofdisabledusers(e.g.,[11][197]) Disordersofconsciousness(DOC)[edit] Somepersonshaveadisorderofconsciousness(DOC).Thisstateisdefinedtoincludepersonswithcoma,aswellaspersonsinavegetativestate(VS)orminimallyconsciousstate(MCS).NewBCIresearchseekstohelppersonswithDOCindifferentways.Akeyinitialgoalistoidentifypatientswhoareabletoperformbasiccognitivetasks,whichwouldofcourseleadtoachangeintheirdiagnosis.Thatis,somepersonswhoarediagnosedwithDOCmayinfactbeabletoprocessinformationandmakeimportantlifedecisions(suchaswhethertoseektherapy,wheretolive,andtheirviewsonend-of-lifedecisionsregardingthem).SomepersonswhoarediagnosedwithDOCdieasaresultofend-of-lifedecisions,whichmaybemadebyfamilymemberswhosincerelyfeelthisisinthepatient'sbestinterests.Giventhenewprospectofallowingthesepatientstoprovidetheirviewsonthisdecision,therewouldseemtobeastrongethicalpressuretodevelopthisresearchdirectiontoguaranteethatDOCpatientsaregivenanopportunitytodecidewhethertheywanttolive.[198][199] TheseandotherarticlesdescribenewchallengesandsolutionstouseBCItechnologytohelppersonswithDOC.OnemajorchallengeisthatthesepatientscannotuseBCIsbasedonvision.Hence,newtoolsrelyonauditoryand/orvibrotactilestimuli.Patientsmaywearheadphonesand/orvibrotactilestimulatorsplacedonthewrists,neck,leg,and/orotherlocations.Anotherchallengeisthatpatientsmayfadeinandoutofconsciousness,andcanonlycommunicateatcertaintimes.Thismayindeedbeacauseofmistakendiagnosis.Somepatientsmayonlybeabletorespondtophysicians'requestsduringafewhoursperday(whichmightnotbepredictableaheadoftime)andthusmayhavebeenunresponsiveduringdiagnosis.Therefore,newmethodsrelyontoolsthatareeasytouseinfieldsettings,evenwithoutexperthelp,sofamilymembersandotherpersonswithoutanymedicalortechnicalbackgroundcanstillusethem.Thisreducesthecost,time,needforexpertise,andotherburdenswithDOCassessment.Automatedtoolscanasksimplequestionsthatpatientscaneasilyanswer,suchas"IsyourfathernamedGeorge?"or"WereyoubornintheUSA?"Automatedinstructionsinformpatientsthattheymayconveyyesornoby(forexample)focusingtheirattentiononstimuliontherightvs.leftwrist.ThisfocusedattentionproducesreliablechangesinEEGpatternsthatcanhelpdeterminethatthepatientisabletocommunicate.Theresultscouldbepresentedtophysiciansandtherapists,whichcouldleadtoareviseddiagnosisandtherapy.Inaddition,thesepatientscouldthenbeprovidedwithBCI-basedcommunicationtoolsthatcouldhelpthemconveybasicneeds,adjustbedpositionandHVAC(heating,ventilation,andairconditioning),andotherwiseempowerthemtomakemajorlifedecisionsandcommunicate.[200][201][202] Motorrecovery[edit] Peoplemaylosesomeoftheirabilitytomoveduetomanycauses,suchasstrokeorinjury.ResearchinrecentyearshasdemonstratedtheutilityofEEG-basedBCIsystemsinaidingmotorrecoveryandneurorehabilitationinpatientswhohavehadastroke.[203][204][205][206]SeveralgroupshaveexploredsystemsandmethodsformotorrecoverythatincludeBCIs.[207][208][209][210]Inthisapproach,aBCImeasuresmotoractivitywhilethepatientimaginesorattemptsmovementsasdirectedbyatherapist.TheBCImayprovidetwobenefits:(1)iftheBCIindicatesthatapatientisnotimaginingamovementcorrectly(non-compliance),thentheBCIcouldinformthepatientandtherapist;and(2)rewardingfeedbacksuchasfunctionalstimulationorthemovementofavirtualavataralsodependsonthepatient'scorrectmovementimagery. Sofar,BCIsformotorrecoveryhavereliedontheEEGtomeasurethepatient'smotorimagery.However,studieshavealsousedfMRItostudydifferentchangesinthebrainaspersonsundergoBCI-basedstrokerehabtraining.[211][212][213]ImagingstudiescombinedwithEEG-basedBCIsystemsholdpromiseforinvestigatingneuroplasticityduringmotorrecoverypost-stroke.[213]FuturesystemsmightincludethefMRIandothermeasuresforreal-timecontrol,suchasfunctionalnear-infrared,probablyintandemwithEEGs.Non-invasivebrainstimulationhasalsobeenexploredincombinationwithBCIsformotorrecovery.[214]In2016,scientistsoutoftheUniversityofMelbournepublishedpreclinicalproof-of-conceptdatarelatedtoapotentialbrain-computerinterfacetechnologyplatformbeingdevelopedforpatientswithparalysistofacilitatecontrolofexternaldevicessuchasroboticlimbs,computersandexoskeletonsbytranslatingbrainactivity.[215][216]Clinicaltrialsarecurrentlyunderway.[217] Functionalbrainmapping[edit] Eachyear,about400,000peopleundergobrainmappingduringneurosurgery.Thisprocedureisoftenrequiredforpeoplewithtumorsorepilepsythatdonotrespondtomedication.[218]Duringthisprocedure,electrodesareplacedonthebraintopreciselyidentifythelocationsofstructuresandfunctionalareas.Patientsmaybeawakeduringneurosurgeryandaskedtoperformcertaintasks,suchasmovingfingersorrepeatingwords.Thisisnecessarysothatsurgeonscanremoveonlythedesiredtissuewhilesparingotherregions,suchascriticalmovementorlanguageregions.Removingtoomuchbraintissuecancausepermanentdamage,whileremovingtoolittletissuecanleavetheunderlyingconditionuntreatedandrequireadditionalneurosurgery.Thus,thereisastrongneedtoimprovebothmethodsandsystemstomapthebrainaseffectivelyaspossible. Inseveralrecentpublications,BCIresearchexpertsandmedicaldoctorshavecollaboratedtoexplorenewwaystouseBCItechnologytoimproveneurosurgicalmapping.Thisworkfocuseslargelyonhighgammaactivity,whichisdifficulttodetectwithnon-invasivemeans.Resultshaveledtoimprovedmethodsforidentifyingkeyareasformovement,language,andotherfunctions.Arecentarticleaddressedadvancesinfunctionalbrainmappingandsummarizesaworkshop.[219] Flexibledevices[edit] Flexibleelectronicsarepolymersorotherflexiblematerials(e.g.silk,[220]pentacene,PDMS,Parylene,polyimide[221])thatareprintedwithcircuitry;theflexiblenatureoftheorganicbackgroundmaterialsallowingtheelectronicscreatedtobend,andthefabricationtechniquesusedtocreatethesedevicesresemblesthoseusedtocreateintegratedcircuitsandmicroelectromechanicalsystems(MEMS).[citationneeded]Flexibleelectronicswerefirstdevelopedinthe1960sand1970s,butresearchinterestincreasedinthemid-2000s.[222] Flexibleneuralinterfaceshavebeenextensivelytestedinrecentyearsinanefforttominimizebraintissuetraumarelatedtomechanicalmismatchbetweenelectrodeandtissue.[223]Minimizingtissuetraumacould,intheory,extendthelifespanofBCIsrelyingonflexibleelectrode-tissueinterfaces. Neuraldust[edit] Mainarticle:Neuraldust Neuraldustisatermusedtorefertomillimeter-sizeddevicesoperatedaswirelesslypowerednervesensorsthatwereproposedina2011paperfromtheUniversityofCalifornia,BerkeleyWirelessResearchCenter,whichdescribedboththechallengesandoutstandingbenefitsofcreatingalonglastingwirelessBCI.[224][225]Inoneproposedmodeloftheneuraldustsensor,thetransistormodelallowedforamethodofseparatingbetweenlocalfieldpotentialsandactionpotential"spikes",whichwouldallowforagreatlydiversifiedwealthofdataacquirablefromtherecordings.[224] Seealso[edit] Informatics AlterEgo,asystemthatreadsunspokenverbalizationsandrespondswithbone-conductionheadphones Augmentedlearning Biologicalmachine Corticalimplants Deepbrainstimulation Humansenses Kernel(neurotechnologycompany) Liedetection Microwaveauditoryeffect Neuralengineering Neuralink Neurorobotics Neurostimulation Nootropic ProjectCyborg Simulatedreality Telepresence Thoughtidentification Wetwarecomputer(UsesSimilarTechnologyforIO) 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Furtherreading[edit] Brouse,Andrew."AYoungPerson'sGuidetoBrainwaveMusic:FortyyearsofaudiofromthehumanEEG".eContact!14.2–BiotechnologicalPerformancePractice/Pratiquesdeperformancebiotechnologique(July2012).Montréal:CEC. Gupta,CotaNavinandRamaswamyPalanappian."UsingHigh-FrequencyElectroencephalograminVisualandAuditory-BasedBrain-ComputerInterfaceDesigns".eContact!14.2–BiotechnologicalPerformancePractice/Pratiquesdeperformancebiotechnologique(July2012).Montréal:CEC. Ouzounian,Gascia."TheBiomuseTrioinConversation:AnInterviewwithR.BenjaminKnappandEricLyon".eContact!14.2–BiotechnologicalPerformancePractice/Pratiquesdeperformancebiotechnologique(July2012).Montréal:CEC. Externallinks[edit] WikimediaCommonshasmediarelatedtoBrain-computerinterfaces. ScholiahasatopicprofileforBrain–computerinterface. 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