Google Scholar - Wikipedia

Google Scholar is a freely accessible web search engine that indexes the full text or metadata of scholarly literature across an array of publishing formats ... GoogleScholar FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia Jumptonavigation Jumptosearch AcademicsearchservicebyGoogle GoogleScholarTypeofsiteBibliographicdatabaseOwnerGoogleURLscholar.google.comRegistrationOptionalLaunchedNovember 20,2004;16yearsago (2004-11-20)Current statusActive GoogleScholarisafreelyaccessiblewebsearchenginethatindexesthefulltextormetadataofscholarlyliteratureacrossanarrayofpublishingformatsanddisciplines.ReleasedinbetainNovember2004,theGoogleScholarindexincludesmostpeer-reviewedonlineacademicjournalsandbooks,conferencepapers,thesesanddissertations,preprints,abstracts,technicalreports,andotherscholarlyliterature,includingcourtopinionsandpatents.[1]GoogleScholarusesawebcrawler,orwebrobot,toidentifyfilesforinclusioninthesearchresults.[2]ForcontenttobeindexedinGoogleScholar,itmustmeetcertainspecifiedcriteria.[3]AnearlierstatisticalestimatepublishedinPLOSONEusingaMarkandrecapturemethodestimatedapproximately80–90%coverageofallarticlespublishedinEnglishwithanestimateof100million.[4]Thisestimatealsodeterminedhowmanydocumentswerefreelyavailableontheinternet. GoogleScholarhasbeencriticizedfornotvettingjournalsandforincludingpredatoryjournalsinitsindex.[5] TheUniversityofMichiganLibraryandotherlibrarieswhosecollectionsGooglescannedforGoogleBooksandGoogleScholarretainedcopiesofthescansandhaveusedthemtocreatetheHathiTrustDigitalLibrary.[6][7] Contents 1History 2Featuresandspecifications 2.1Groupsandaccesstoliterature 2.2Citationanalysisandtools 2.3Relatedarticles 2.4USlegalcasedatabase 3Rankingalgorithm 4Limitationsandcriticism 5SearchengineoptimizationforGoogleScholar 6Seealso 7References 8Furtherreading 9Externallinks History[edit] GoogleScholararoseoutofadiscussionbetweenAlexVerstakandAnuragAcharya,[8]bothofwhomwerethenworkingonbuildingGoogle'smainwebindex.[9][10]Theirgoalwasto"maketheworld'sproblemsolvers10%moreefficient"[11]byallowingeasierandmoreaccurateaccesstoscientificknowledge.ThisgoalisreflectedintheGoogleScholar'sadvertisingslogan–"Standontheshouldersofgiants"–takenfromanideaattributedtoBernardofChartres,quotedbyIsaacNewton,andisanodtothescholarswhohavecontributedtotheirfieldsoverthecenturies,providingthefoundationfornewintellectualachievements. OneoftheoriginalsourcesforthetextsinGoogleScholaristheUniversityofMichigan'sprintcollection.[6] Scholarhasgainedarangeoffeaturesovertime.In2006,acitationimportingfeaturewasimplementedsupportingbibliographymanagers(suchasRefWorks,RefMan,EndNote,andBibTeX).In2007,AcharyaannouncedthatGoogleScholarhadstartedaprogramtodigitizeandhostjournalarticlesinagreementwiththeirpublishers,aneffortseparatefromGoogleBooks,whosescansofolderjournalsdonotincludethemetadatarequiredforidentifyingspecificarticlesinspecificissues.[12]In2011,GoogleremovedScholarfromthetoolbarsonitssearchpages,[13]makingitbothlesseasilyaccessibleandlessdiscoverableforusersnotalreadyawareofitsexistence.Aroundthisperiod,siteswithsimilarfeaturessuchasCiteSeer,Scirus,andMicrosoftWindowsLiveAcademicsearchweredeveloped.Someofthesearenowdefunct;althoughin2016,Microsoftlaunchedanewcompetitor,MicrosoftAcademic. Amajorenhancementwasrolledoutin2012,withthepossibilityforindividualscholarstocreatepersonal"ScholarCitationsprofiles".[14] AfeatureintroducedinNovember2013allowslogged-inuserstosavesearchresultsintothe"GoogleScholarlibrary",apersonalcollectionwhichtheusercansearchseparatelyandorganizebytags.[15]Ametricsfeaturenowsupportsviewingtheimpactofacademicjournals,[16]andwholefieldsofscience,viathe"metrics"button.Thisrevealsthetopjournalsinafieldofinterest,andthearticlesgeneratingthesejournal'simpactcanalsobeaccessed. Featuresandspecifications[edit] GoogleScholarallowsuserstosearchfordigitalorphysicalcopiesofarticles,whetheronlineorinlibraries.[17]Itindexes"full-textjournalarticles,technicalreports,preprints,theses,books,andotherdocuments,includingselectedWebpagesthataredeemedtobe'scholarly.'"[18]BecausemanyofGoogleScholar'ssearchresultslinktocommercialjournalarticles,mostpeoplewillbeabletoaccessonlyanabstractandthecitationdetailsofanarticle,andhavetopayafeetoaccesstheentirearticle.[18]Themostrelevantresultsforthesearchedkeywordswillbelistedfirst,inorderoftheauthor'sranking,thenumberofreferencesthatarelinkedtoitandtheirrelevancetootherscholarlyliterature,andtherankingofthepublicationthatthejournalappearsin.[19] Groupsandaccesstoliterature[edit] Usingits"groupof"feature,itshowstheavailablelinkstojournalarticles.Inthe2005version,thisfeatureprovidedalinktobothsubscription-accessversionsofanarticleandtofreefull-textversionsofarticles;formostof2006,itprovidedlinkstoonlythepublishers'versions.SinceDecember2006,ithasprovidedlinkstobothpublishedversionsandmajoropenaccessrepositories,includingthosepostedonindividualfacultywebpagesandotherunstructuredsourcesidentifiedbysimilarity.Ontheotherhand,GoogleScholardoesn'tallowtofilterexplicitlybetweentollaccessandopenaccessresources,afeatureofferedUnpaywallandthetoolswhichembeditsdata,suchasWebofScience,ScopusandUnpaywallJournals,usedbylibrariestocalculatetherealcostsandvalueoftheircollections.[20] Citationanalysisandtools[edit] Throughits"citedby"feature,GoogleScholarprovidesaccesstoabstractsofarticlesthathavecitedthearticlebeingviewed.[21]ItisthisfeatureinparticularthatprovidesthecitationindexingpreviouslyonlyfoundinCiteSeer,Scopus,andWebofScience.GoogleScholaralsoprovideslinkssothatcitationscanbeeithercopiedinvariousformatsorimportedintouser-chosenreferencemanagerssuchasZotero. "ScholarCitationsprofiles"arepublicauthorprofilesthatareeditablebyauthorsthemselves.[14]Individuals,loggingonthroughaGoogleaccountwithabonafideaddressusuallylinkedtoanacademicinstitution,cannowcreatetheirownpagegivingtheirfieldsofinterestandcitations.GoogleScholarautomaticallycalculatesanddisplaystheindividual'stotalcitationcount,h-index,andi10-index.AccordingtoGoogle,"three-quartersofScholarsearchresultspages[...]showlinkstotheauthors'publicprofiles"asofAugust2014.[14] Relatedarticles[edit] Throughits"Relatedarticles"feature,GoogleScholarpresentsalistofcloselyrelatedarticles,rankedprimarilybyhowsimilarthesearticlesaretotheoriginalresult,butalsotakingintoaccounttherelevanceofeachpaper.[22] USlegalcasedatabase[edit] GoogleScholar'slegaldatabaseofUScasesisextensive.UserscansearchandreadpublishedopinionsofUSstateappellateandsupremecourtcasessince1950,USfederaldistrict,appellate,tax,andbankruptcycourtssince1923andUSSupremeCourtcasessince1791.[21]GoogleScholarembedsclickablecitationlinkswithinthecaseandtheHowCitedtaballowslawyerstoresearchpriorcaselawandthesubsequentcitationstothecourtdecision.[23]TheGoogleScholarLegalContentStarPaginatorextensioninsertsWestlawandLexisNexisstylepagenumbersinlinewiththetextofthecase.[24] Rankingalgorithm[edit] Whilemostacademicdatabasesandsearchenginesallowuserstoselectonefactor(e.g.relevance,citationcounts,orpublicationdate)torankresults,GoogleScholarranksresultswithacombinedrankingalgorithmina"wayresearchersdo,weighingthefulltextofeacharticle,theauthor,thepublicationinwhichthearticleappears,andhowoftenthepiecehasbeencitedinotherscholarlyliterature".[19]ResearchhasshownthatGoogleScholarputshighweightespeciallyoncitationcounts[25]andwordsincludedinadocument'stitle.[26]Insearchesbyauthororyear,thenumberofcitationsishighlydeterminant,whereasinkeywordsearchesthenumberofcitationsisprobablythefactorwiththemostweight,butotherfactorsalsoparticipate.[27]Asaconsequence,thefirstsearchresultsareoftenhighlycitedarticles. Limitationsandcriticism[edit] SomesearchersfoundGoogleScholartobeofcomparablequalityandutilitytosubscription-baseddatabaseswhenlookingatcitationsofarticlesinsomespecificjournals.[28][29]Thereviewsrecognizethatits"citedby"featureinparticularposesseriouscompetitiontoScopusandWebofScience.AstudylookingatthebiomedicalfieldfoundcitationinformationinGoogleScholartobe"sometimesinadequate,andlessoftenupdated".[30]ThecoverageofGoogleScholarmayvarybydisciplinecomparedtoothergeneraldatabases.[31]GoogleScholarstrivestoincludeasmanyjournalsaspossible,includingpredatoryjournals,which"havepollutedtheglobalscientificrecordwithpseudo-science,arecordthatGoogleScholardutifullyandperhapsblindlyincludesinitscentralindex."[32]GoogleScholardoesnotpublishalistofjournalscrawledorpublishersincluded,andthefrequencyofitsupdatesisuncertain.BibliometricevidencesuggestsGoogleScholar'scoverageofthesciencesandsocialsciencesiscompetitivewithotheracademicdatabases;howeverasof2017,Scholar'scoverageoftheartsandhumanitieshasnotbeeninvestigatedempiricallyandScholar'sutilityfordisciplinesinthesefieldsremainsambiguous.[33]Especiallyearlyon,somepublishersdidnotallowScholartocrawltheirjournals.Elsevierjournalshavebeenincludedsincemid-2007,whenElsevierbegantomakemostofitsScienceDirectcontentavailabletoGoogleScholarandGoogle'swebsearch.[34]However,a2014study[4]estimatesthatGoogleScholarcanfindalmost90%(approximately100million)ofallscholarlydocumentsontheWebwritteninEnglish.Large-scalelongitudinalstudieshavefoundbetween40and60percentofscientificarticlesareavailableinfulltextviaGoogleScholarlinks.[35] GoogleScholarputshighweightoncitationcountsinitsrankingalgorithmandthereforeisbeingcriticizedforstrengtheningtheMattheweffect;[25]ashighlycitedpapersappearintoppositionstheygainmorecitationswhilenewpapershardlyappearintoppositionsandthereforegetlessattentionbytheusersofGoogleScholarandhencefewercitations.GoogleScholareffectisaphenomenonwhensomeresearcherspickandciteworksappearinginthetopresultsonGoogleScholarregardlessoftheircontributiontothecitingpublicationbecausetheyautomaticallyassumetheseworks'credibilityandbelievethateditors,reviewers,andreadersexpecttoseethesecitations.[36]GoogleScholarhasproblemsidentifyingpublicationsonthearXivpreprintservercorrectly.Interpunctuationcharactersintitlesproducewrongsearchresults,andauthorsareassignedtowrongpapers,whichleadstoerroneousadditionalsearchresults.Somesearchresultsareevengivenwithoutanycomprehensiblereason.[37][38]GoogleScholarisvulnerabletospam.[39][40]ResearchersfromtheUniversityofCalifornia,BerkeleyandOtto-von-GuerickeUniversityMagdeburgdemonstratedthatcitationcountsonGoogleScholarcanbemanipulatedandcompletenon-sensearticlescreatedwithSCIgenwereindexedfromGoogleScholar.[41]TheyconcludedthatcitationcountsfromGoogleScholarshouldonlybeusedwithcareespeciallywhenusedtocalculateperformancemetricssuchastheh-indexorimpactfactor.GoogleScholarstartedcomputinganh-indexin2012withtheadventofindividualScholarpages.SeveraldownstreampackageslikeHarzing'sPublishorPerishalsouseitsdata.[42]Thepracticalityofmanipulatingh-indexcalculatorsbyspoofingGoogleScholarwasdemonstratedin2010byCyrilLabbefromJosephFourierUniversity,whomanagedtorank"IkeAntkare"aheadofAlbertEinsteinbymeansofalargesetofSCIgen-produceddocumentscitingeachother(effectivelyanacademiclinkfarm).[43]Asof2010,GoogleScholarwasnotabletoshepardizecaselaw,asLexiscan.[44]UnlikeotherindexesofacademicworksuchasScopusandWebofScience,GoogleScholardoesnotmaintainanApplicationProgrammingInterfacethatmaybeusedtoautomatedataretrieval.UseofwebscraperstoobtainthecontentsofsearchresultsisalsoseverelyrestrictedbytheimplementationofratelimitersandCAPTCHAs.GoogleScholardoesnotdisplayorexportDigitalObjectIdentifiers(DOIs),adefactostandardimplementedbyallmajoracademicpublisherstouniquelyidentifyandrefertoindividualpiecesofacademicwork. SearchengineoptimizationforGoogleScholar[edit] Searchengineoptimization(SEO)fortraditionalwebsearchenginessuchasGooglehasbeenpopularformanyyears.Forseveralyears,SEOhasalsobeenappliedtoacademicsearchenginessuchasGoogleScholar.[45]SEOforacademicarticlesisalsocalled"academicsearchengineoptimization"(ASEO)anddefinedas"thecreation,publication,andmodificationofscholarlyliteratureinawaythatmakesiteasierforacademicsearchenginestobothcrawlitandindexit".[45]ASEOhasbeenadoptedbyorganizationssuchasElsevier,[46]OpenScience,[47]Mendeley,[48]andSAGEPublishing[49]tooptimizetheirarticles'rankingsinGoogleScholar.ASEOhasnegatives.[41] Seealso[edit] Listofacademicdatabasesandsearchengines MicrosoftAcademic ResearchGate ScienceCitationIndex References[edit] ^"SearchTips:ContentCoverage".GoogleScholar.Archivedfromtheoriginalon23September2016.Retrieved27April2016. ^"GoogleScholarHelp".scholar.google.com.Retrieved2021-09-01. ^"GoogleScholarHelp".scholar.google.com.Retrieved2021-09-01. 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^Martín-Martín,Alberto;Orduña-Malea,Enrique;Ayllón,JuanManuel;DelgadoLópez-Cózar,Emilio(2014-10-30)."DoesGoogleScholarcontainallhighlyciteddocuments(1950–2013)?".arXiv:1410.8464[cs.DL]. ^Serenko,A.;Dumay,J.(2015)."Citationclassicspublishedinknowledgemanagementjournals.PartII:StudyingresearchtrendsanddiscoveringtheGoogleScholarEffect"(PDF).JournalofKnowledgeManagement.19(6):1335–55.doi:10.1108/JKM-02-2015-0086.Archived(PDF)fromtheoriginalon2015-10-01.Retrieved2015-09-30. ^Jacso,Peter(24September2009)."GoogleScholar'sGhostAuthors,LostAuthors,andOtherProblems".LibraryJournal.Archivedfromtheoriginalon7June2011. ^PéterJacsó(2010)."MetadatamegamessinGoogleScholar".OnlineInformationReview.34:175–91.doi:10.1108/14684521011024191. ^OntheRobustnessofGoogleScholaragainstSpam ^ScholarlyOpenAccess–DidARomanianResearcherSuccessfullyGameGoogleScholartoRaisehisCitationCount?Archived2015-01-22attheWaybackMachine 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Furtherreading[edit] Jensenius,F.,Htun,M.,Samuels,D.,Singer,D.,Lawrence,A.,&Chwe,M.(2018)."TheBenefitsandPitfallsofGoogleScholar"PS:PoliticalScience&Politics,51(4),820-824. Externallinks[edit] WikimediaCommonshasmediarelatedtoGoogleScholar. Wikidatahastheproperties: GoogleScholarauthorID(P1960)(seeuses)GoogleScholarpaperID(P4028)(seeuses) GoogleScholar GoogleScholarBlog CitationIndexingandIndexes.InISKOEncyclopediaofKnowledgeOrganization vteGoogle AlphabetInc. 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