Colosseum - Wikipedia

The Colosseum is an oval amphitheatre in the centre of the city of Rome, Italy, just east of the Roman Forum. It is the largest ancient amphitheatre ever ... Colosseum FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia Jumptonavigation Jumptosearch Forotheruses,seeColosseum(disambiguation). "Colosseo"redirectshere.Forthemetrostation,seeColosseo(RomeMetro). AncientRomanamphitheatre,alandmarkofRome,Italy ColosseumViewfromthemetroexitColosseumShownwithinAugustanRomeClickonthemapforafullscreenviewLocationRegioIIIIsisetSerapis,Rome,ItalyCoordinates41°53′25″N12°29′32″E/41.89028°N12.49222°E/41.89028;12.49222Coordinates:41°53′25″N12°29′32″E/41.89028°N12.49222°E/41.89028;12.49222TypeAmphitheatreHistoryBuilderVespasian,TitusFoundedAD70–80;1942 yearsago (80) TheColosseum(/ˌkɒləˈsiːəm/KOL-ə-SEE-əm;Italian:Colosseo[kolosˈsɛːo])isanovalamphitheatreinthecentreofthecityofRome,Italy,justeastoftheRomanForum.Itisthelargestancientamphitheatreeverbuilt,andisstillthelargeststandingamphitheatreintheworldtoday,despiteitsage.ConstructionbeganundertheemperorVespasian(r. 69–79 AD)in72[1]andwascompletedin80ADunderhissuccessorandheir,Titus(r. 79–81).[2]FurthermodificationsweremadeduringthereignofDomitian(r. 81–96).[3]ThethreeemperorsthatwerepatronsoftheworkareknownastheFlaviandynasty,andtheamphitheatrewasnamedtheFlavianAmphitheatre(Latin:AmphitheatrumFlavium;Italian:AnfiteatroFlavio[aɱfiteˈaːtroˈflaːvjo])bylaterclassicistsandarchaeologistsforitsassociationwiththeirfamilyname(Flavius). TheColosseumisbuiltoftravertinelimestone,tuff(volcanicrock),andbrick-facedconcrete.Itcouldholdanestimated50,000to80,000spectatorsatvariouspointsinitshistory,[4][5]havinganaverageaudienceofsome65,000;[6]itwasusedforgladiatorialcontestsandpublicspectaclesincludinganimalhunts,executions,re-enactmentsoffamousbattles,anddramasbasedonRomanmythology,andbrieflymockseabattles.Thebuildingceasedtobeusedforentertainmentintheearlymedievalera.Itwaslaterreusedforsuchpurposesashousing,workshops,quartersforareligiousorder,afortress,aquarry,andaChristianshrine. Althoughsubstantiallyruinedbyearthquakesandstonerobberstakingspolia,theColosseumisstillaniconicsymbolofImperialRomeandwaslistedasoneoftheNew7WondersoftheWorld.[7]ItisoneofRome'smostpopulartouristattractionsandalsohaslinkstotheRomanCatholicChurch,aseachGoodFridaythePopeleadsatorchlit"WayoftheCross"processionthatstartsintheareaaroundtheColosseum.[8]TheColosseumisdepictedontheItalianversionofthefive-centeurocoin. Contents 1Name 2History 2.1Construction,inauguration,andRomanrenovations 2.2Medieval 2.3Modern 3Physicaldescription 3.1Exterior 3.2Interiorseating 3.3Arenaandhypogeum 3.4Supportingbuildings 4Use 4.1Modernuse 4.1.1Restoration 5SignificanceinChristianity 6Flora 7Inpopularculture 8Gallery 9Seealso 10References 10.1Notes 10.2Bibliography 11Externallinks Name Originally,thebuilding'sLatinnamewassimplytheLatin:amphitheatrum,lit. 'amphitheatre'.[9]ThoughthemodernnameFlavianAmphitheatre(Latin:AmphitheatrumFlavium)isoftenused,thereisnoevidenceitwasusedinClassicalAntiquity.[9]ThisnamereferstothepatronageoftheFlaviandynasty,duringwhosereignsthebuildingwasconstructed,butthestructureisbetterknownastheColosseum.[9]Inantiquity,RomansmayhavereferredtotheColosseumbytheunofficialnameAmphitheatrumCaesareum(withCaesareumanadjectivepertainingtothetitleCaesar),butthisnamemayhavebeenstrictlypoetic[10][11]asitwasnotexclusivetotheColosseum;VespasianandTitus,buildersoftheColosseum,alsoconstructedaFlavianAmphitheatreinPuteoli(modernPozzuoli).[12] ThenameColosseumisbelievedtobederivedfromacolossalstatueofNeroonthemodeloftheColossusofRhodes.[9][3]ThegiantbronzesculptureofNeroasasolardeitywasmovedtoitspositionbesidetheamphitheatrebytheemperorHadrian(r. 117–138).[9]ThewordcolosseumisaneuterLatinnounformedfromtheadjectivecolosseus,meaning"gigantic"or"colossean".[9]Bytheyear1000theLatinname"Colosseum"hadbeencoinedtorefertotheamphitheatrefromthenearby"ColossusSolis".[13] ThespellingwassometimesalteredinMedievalLatin:coloseumandcoliseumareattestedfromthe12thand14thcenturiesrespectively.[9]Inthe12thcentury,thestructurewasrecordedastheamphitheatrumcolisei,'AmphitheatreoftheColossus'.[9]IntheHighMiddleAges,theFlavianamphitheatreisattestedasthelate13th-centuryOldFrench:colosé,andinMiddleFrenchas:coliséebytheearly16thcentury,bywhichtimethewordcouldbeappliedtoanyamphitheatre.[9]FromMiddleFrench:coliséederivedtheMiddleEnglish:colisee,inusebythemiddleofthe15thcenturyandemployedbyJohnCapgraveinhisSolaceofPilgrims,inwhichheremarked:MiddleEnglish:colliseekeisameruelousplace…þemoostpartofitstantatþisday.[14]AnEnglishtranslationbyJohnBourchier,2ndBaronBerners,ofAntoniodeGuevara'sbiographyofMarcusAurelius(r. 161–180)inabout1533referredtoMiddleEnglish:thisEmperour,beyngewiththeSenateatCollisee....[14]Similarly,theItalian:colosseo,orcoliseo,areattestedasreferringfirsttotheamphitheatreinRome,andthentoanyamphitheatre(asItalian:culiseoin1367).[14][9]By1460,anequivalentexistedinCatalan:coliseu;by1495hadappearedtheSpanish:coliseo,andby1548thePortuguese:coliseu.[9] Colosseum TheearliestcitationforthenameColosseuminEarlyModernEnglishisthe1600translation,byPhilemonHolland,oftheUrbisRomaetopographiaofBartolomeoMarliani,whichheusedinthepreparationofhistranslationofLivy'sAugustaneraAbUrbeConditaLibri.[9]Thetextstates:"ThisAmphitheatrewascommonlycalledColosseum,ofNeroesColossus,whichwassetupintheporchofNeroeshouse."[9]Similarly,JohnEvelyn,translatingtheMiddleFrenchname:leColiséeusedbythearchitecturaltheoristRolandFréartdeChambray,wrote"And'tisindeedakindofmiracletoseethattheColosseum…andinnumerableotherStructureswhichseemedtohavebeenbuiltforEternity,shouldbeatpresentsoruinousanddilapidated".[9] AfterNero'ssuicideandthecivilwarsoftheYearoftheFourEmperors,theColossusofNerowasremodeledbythecondemnedemperor'ssuccessorsintothelikenessofHelios(Sol)orApollo,thesungod,byaddingtheappropriatesolarcrown.Itwasthencommonlyreferredtoasthe"Colossussolis".[15]Nero'sheadwasalsoreplacedseveraltimeswiththeheadsofsucceedingemperors.[16]Despiteitspaganlinks,thestatueremainedstandingwellintothemedievaleraandwascreditedwithmagicalpowers.TheemperorConstantinetheGreatremodeledthestatue'sfaceashisown.[17] Inthe8thcentury,anepigramattributedtotheVenerableBedecelebratedthesymbolicsignificanceofthestatueinaprophecythatisvariouslyquoted:QuamdiustatColisæus,statetRoma;quandocadetcolisæus,cadetetRoma;quandocadetRoma,cadetetmundus("aslongastheColossusstands,soshallRome;whentheColossusfalls,Romeshallfall;whenRomefalls,sofallstheworld").[18]ThisisoftenmistranslatedtorefertotheColosseumratherthantheColossus(asin,forinstance,Byron'spoemChildeHarold'sPilgrimage).However,atthetimethatthePseudo-Bedewrote,themasculinenouncoliseuswasappliedtothestatueratherthantotheamphitheatre.[19] TheColossusdideventuallyfall,possiblybeingpulleddowntoreuseitsbronze.Thestatueitselfwaslargelyforgottenandonlyitsbasesurvives,betweentheColosseumandthenearbyTempleofVenusandRoma.[20] History Construction,inauguration,andRomanrenovations SestertiusofTituscelebratingtheinaugurationoftheColosseum(minted80AD). AmapofcentralRomeduringtheRomanEmpire,withtheColosseumattheupperrightcorner ThesitechosenwasaflatareaonthefloorofalowvalleybetweentheCaelian,EsquilineandPalatineHills,throughwhichacanalisedstreamranaswellasanartificiallake/marsh.[21]Bythe2ndcenturyBCtheareawasdenselyinhabited.ItwasdevastatedbytheGreatFireofRomein64AD,followingwhichNeroseizedmuchoftheareatoaddtohispersonaldomain.HebuiltthegrandioseDomusAureaonthesite,infrontofwhichhecreatedanartificiallakesurroundedbypavilions,gardensandporticoes.TheexistingAquaClaudiaaqueductwasextendedtosupplywatertotheareaandthegiganticbronzeColossusofNerowassetupnearbyattheentrancetotheDomusAurea.[20]Cross-sectionfromtheLexikondergesamtenTechnik(1904)AlthoughtheColossuswaspreserved,muchoftheDomusAureawastorndown.ThelakewasfilledinandthelandreusedasthelocationforthenewFlavianAmphitheatre.GladiatorialschoolsandothersupportbuildingswereconstructednearbywithintheformergroundsoftheDomusAurea.Vespasian'sdecisiontobuildtheColosseumonthesiteofNero'slakecanbeseenasapopulistgestureofreturningtothepeopleanareaofthecitywhichNerohadappropriatedforhisownuse.Incontrasttomanyotheramphitheatres,whichwereontheoutskirtsofacity,theColosseumwasconstructedinthecitycentre,ineffect,placingitbothsymbolicallyandpreciselyattheheartofRome. ConstructionwasfundedbytheopulentspoilstakenfromtheJewishTempleaftertheFirstJewish–RomanWarin70ADledtotheSiegeofJerusalem.Accordingtoareconstructedinscriptionfoundonthesite,"theemperorVespasianorderedthisnewamphitheatretobeerectedfromhisgeneral'sshareofthebooty."ItisoftenassumedthatJewishprisonersofwarwerebroughtbacktoRomeandcontributedtothemassiveworkforceneededfortheconstructionoftheamphitheatre,butthereisnoancientevidenceforthat;itwould,nonetheless,becommensuratewithRomanpracticetoaddhumiliationtothedefeatedpopulation.[22]Alongwiththisfreesourceofunskilledlabor,teamsofprofessionalRomanbuilders,engineers,artists,paintersanddecoratorsundertookthemorespecializedtasksnecessaryforbuildingtheColosseum.TheColosseumwasconstructedwithseveraldifferentmaterials:wood,limestone,tuff,tiles,cement,andmortar. ConstructionoftheColosseumbeganundertheruleofVespasian[3]inaround70–72AD(73–75ADaccordingtosomesources).TheColosseumhadbeencompleteduptothethirdstorybythetimeofVespasian'sdeathin79.Thetoplevelwasfinishedbyhisson,Titus,in80,[3]andtheinauguralgameswereheldin80or81AD.[23]DioCassiusrecountsthatover9,000wildanimalswerekilledduringtheinauguralgamesoftheamphitheatre.Commemorativecoinagewasissuedcelebratingtheinauguration.[24]ThebuildingwasremodelledfurtherunderVespasian'syoungerson,thenewlydesignatedEmperorDomitian,whoconstructedthehypogeum,aseriesoftunnelsusedtohouseanimalsandslaves.HealsoaddedagallerytothetopoftheColosseumtoincreaseitsseatingcapacity.[25] In217,theColosseumwasbadlydamagedbyamajorfire(causedbylightning,accordingtoDioCassius[26]),whichdestroyedthewoodenupperlevelsoftheamphitheatre'sinterior.Itwasnotfullyrepaireduntilabout240andunderwentfurtherrepairsin250or252andagainin320.Honoriusbannedthepracticeofgladiatorfightsin399andagainin404.Gladiatorialfightsarelastmentionedaround435.[20]AninscriptionrecordstherestorationofvariouspartsoftheColosseumunderTheodosiusIIandValentinianIII(reigned425–455),possiblytorepairdamagecausedbyamajorearthquakein443;moreworkfollowedin484[27]and508.Thearenacontinuedtobeusedforcontestswellintothe6thcentury.Animalhuntscontinueduntilatleast523,whenAniciusMaximuscelebratedhisconsulshipwithsomevenationes,criticisedbyKingTheodorictheGreatfortheirhighcost.[20] Medieval MapofmedievalRomedepictingtheColosseum TheColosseumunderwentseveralradicalchangesofuse.Bythelate6thcenturyasmallchapelhadbeenbuiltintothestructureoftheamphitheater,thoughthisapparentlydidnotconferanyparticularreligioussignificanceonthebuildingasawhole.Thearenawasconvertedintoacemetery.Thenumerousvaultedspacesinthearcadesundertheseatingwereconvertedintohousingandworkshops,andarerecordedasstillbeingrentedoutaslateasthe12thcentury.Around1200theFrangipanifamilytookovertheColosseumandfortifiedit,apparentlyusingitasacastle. SeveredamagewasinflictedontheColosseumbythegreatearthquakein1349,causingtheoutersouthside,lyingonalessstablealluvialterrain,tocollapse.Muchofthetumbledstonewasreusedtobuildpalaces,churches,hospitalsandotherbuildingselsewhereinRome.AreligiousordermovedintothenorthernthirdoftheColosseuminthemid-14thcentury[28]andcontinuedtoinhabitituntilaslateastheearly19thcentury.Theinterioroftheamphitheaterwasextensivelystrippedofstone,whichwasreusedelsewhere,or(inthecaseofthemarblefaçade)wasburnedtomakequicklime.[20]Theironclamps[20]whichheldthestoneworktogetherwerepriedorhackedoutofthewalls,leavingnumerouspockmarkswhichstillscarthebuildingtoday. Modern TheColosseumina1757engravingbyGiovanniBattistaPiranesi 1870viewemphasizingthesemi-ruralenvironsoftheColosseumatthetime Duringthe16thand17thcentury,ChurchofficialssoughtaproductiverolefortheColosseum.PopeSixtusV(1585–1590)plannedtoturnthebuildingintoawoolfactorytoprovideemploymentforRome'sprostitutes,thoughthisproposalfellthroughwithhisprematuredeath.[29]In1671CardinalAltieriauthorizeditsuseforbullfights;apublicoutcrycausedtheideatobehastilyabandoned. AlliedtroopsconsultaguidebookoutsidetheColosseumafterliberationin1944 In1749,PopeBenedictXIVendorsedtheviewthattheColosseumwasasacredsitewhereearlyChristianshadbeenmartyred.HeforbadetheuseoftheColosseumasaquarryandconsecratedthebuildingtothePassionofChristandinstalledStationsoftheCross,declaringitsanctifiedbythebloodoftheChristianmartyrswhoperishedthere(seeSignificanceinChristianity).However,thereisnohistoricalevidencetosupportBenedict'sclaim,noristhereevenanyevidencethatanyonebeforethe16thcenturysuggestedthismightbethecase;theCatholicEncyclopediaconcludesthattherearenohistoricalgroundsforthesupposition,otherthanthereasonablyplausibleconjecturethatsomeofthemanymartyrsmaywellhavebeen.[30] InterioroftheColosseum,Rome(1832)byThomasCole,showingtheStationsoftheCrossaroundthearenaandtheextensivevegetation Laterpopesinitiatedvariousstabilizationandrestorationprojects,removingtheextensivevegetationwhichhadovergrownthestructureandthreatenedtodamageitfurther.Thefaçadewasreinforcedwithtriangularbrickwedgesin1807and1827,andtheinteriorwasrepairedin1831,1846andinthe1930s.Thearenasubstructurewaspartlyexcavatedin1810–1814and1874andwasfullyexposedunderBenitoMussoliniinthe1930s.[20] TheColosseumistodayoneofRome'smostpopulartouristattractions,receivingmillionsofvisitorsannually.Theeffectsofpollutionandgeneraldeteriorationovertimepromptedamajorrestorationprogrammecarriedoutbetween1993and2000,atacostofLire 40 billion($19.3m/€20.6mat2000prices). Inrecentyears,theColosseumhasbecomeasymboloftheinternationalcampaignagainstcapitalpunishment,whichwasabolishedinItalyin1948.Severalanti–deathpenaltydemonstrationstookplaceinfrontoftheColosseumin2000.Sincethattime,asagestureagainstthedeathpenalty,thelocalauthoritiesofRomechangethecoloroftheColosseum'snighttimeilluminationfromwhitetogoldwheneverapersoncondemnedtothedeathpenaltyanywhereintheworldgetstheirsentencecommutedorisreleased,[31]orifajurisdictionabolishesthedeathpenalty.Mostrecently,theColosseumwasilluminatedingoldinNovember2012followingtheabolishmentofcapitalpunishmentintheAmericanstateofConnecticutinApril2012.[32] Becauseoftheruinedstateoftheinterior,itisimpracticaltousetheColosseumtohostlargeevents;onlyafewhundredspectatorscanbeaccommodatedintemporaryseating.However,muchlargerconcertshavebeenheldjustoutside,usingtheColosseumasabackdrop.PerformerswhohaveplayedattheColosseuminrecentyearshaveincludedRayCharles(May2002),[33]PaulMcCartney(May2003),[34]EltonJohn(September2005),[35]andBillyJoel(July2006). Physicaldescription Exterior TheexterioroftheColosseum,showingthepartiallyintactouterwall(left)andthemostlyintactinnerwall(centerandright) UnlikeRomantheatresthatwerebuiltintohillsides,theColosseumisanentirelyfree-standingstructure.Itderivesitsbasicexteriorandinteriorarchitecturefromthatoftwotheatresbacktoback.Itisellipticalinplanandis189meters(615 ft/640Romanfeet)long,and156meters(510 ft/528Romanfeet)wide,withabaseareaof24,000squaremetres(6acres).Theheightoftheouterwallis48meters(157 ft/165Romanfeet).Theperimeteroriginallymeasured545meters(1,788 ft/1,835Romanfeet).Thecentralarenaisanoval87 m(287 ft)longand55 m(180 ft)wide,surroundedbyawall5 m(15 ft)high,abovewhichrosetiersofseating. Theouterwallisestimatedtohaverequiredover100,000cubicmetres(3.5 millioncubicfeet)oftravertinestonewhichweresetwithoutmortar;theywereheldtogetherby300tonsofironclamps.[20]However,ithassufferedextensivedamageoverthecenturies,withlargesegmentshavingcollapsedfollowingearthquakes.Thenorthsideoftheperimeterwallisstillstanding;thedistinctivetriangularbrickwedgesateachendaremodernadditions,havingbeenconstructedintheearly19thcenturytoshoreupthewall.Theremainderofthepresent-dayexterioroftheColosseumisinfacttheoriginalinteriorwall. SuperposedorderoftheColosseum Thesurvivingpartoftheouterwall'smonumentalfaçadecomprisesthreesuperposedstoreyssurmountedbyapodiumonwhichstandsatallattic,bothofwhicharepiercedbywindowsinterspersedatregularintervals.Thearcadesareframedbyhalf-columnsoftheDoric,Ionic,andCorinthianorders,whiletheatticisdecoratedwithCorinthianpilasters.[36]Eachofthearchesinthesecond-andthird-floorarcadesframedstatues,probablyhonoringdivinitiesandotherfiguresfromClassicalmythology. Twohundredandfortymastcorbelswerepositionedaroundthetopoftheattic.Theyoriginallysupportedaretractableawning,knownasthevelarium,thatkeptthesunandrainoffspectators.Thisconsistedofacanvas-covered,net-likestructuremadeofropes,withaholeinthecenter.[3]Itcoveredtwo-thirdsofthearena,andslopeddowntowardsthecentertocatchthewindandprovideabreezefortheaudience.Sailors,speciallyenlistedfromtheRomannavalheadquartersatMisenumandhousedinthenearbyCastraMisenatium,wereusedtoworkthevelarium.[37] EntranceLIIoftheColosseum,withRomannumeralsstillvisible TheColosseum'shugecrowdcapacitymadeitessentialthatthevenuecouldbefilledorevacuatedquickly.Itsarchitectsadoptedsolutionsverysimilartothoseusedinmodernstadiumstodealwiththesameproblem.Theamphitheatrewasringedbyeightyentrancesatgroundlevel,76ofwhichwereusedbyordinaryspectators.[3]Eachentranceandexitwasnumbered,aswaseachstaircase.ThenorthernmainentrancewasreservedfortheRomanEmperorandhisaides,whilsttheotherthreeaxialentrancesweremostlikelyusedbytheelite.Allfouraxialentranceswererichlydecoratedwithpaintedstuccoreliefs,ofwhichfragmentssurvive.Manyoftheoriginalouterentranceshavedisappearedwiththecollapseoftheperimeterwall,butentrancesXXIII(23)toLIIII(54)survive.[20] Spectatorsweregiventicketsintheformofnumberedpotteryshards,whichdirectedthemtotheappropriatesectionandrow.Theyaccessedtheirseatsviavomitoria(singularvomitorium),passagewaysthatopenedintoatierofseatsfrombeloworbehind.Thesequicklydispersedpeopleintotheirseatsand,uponconclusionoftheeventorinanemergencyevacuation,couldpermittheirexitwithinonlyafewminutes.ThenamevomitoriaderivedfromtheLatinwordforarapiddischarge,fromwhichEnglishderivesthewordvomit. Interiorseating Therakedareasthatonceheldseating AccordingtotheCodex-Calendarof354,theColosseumcouldaccommodate87,000people,althoughmodernestimatesputthefigureataround50,000.TheywereseatedinatieredarrangementthatreflectedtherigidlystratifiednatureofRomansociety.SpecialboxeswereprovidedatthenorthandsouthendsrespectivelyfortheEmperorandtheVestalVirgins,providingthebestviewsofthearena.Flankingthematthesamelevelwasabroadplatformorpodiumforthesenatorialclass,whowereallowedtobringtheirownchairs.Thenamesofsome5thcenturysenatorscanstillbeseencarvedintothestonework,presumablyreservingareasfortheiruse. Diagramofthelevelsofseating Thetierabovethesenators,knownasthemaenianumprimum,wasoccupiedbythenon-senatorialnobleclassorknights(equites).Thenextlevelup,themaenianumsecundum,wasoriginallyreservedforordinaryRomancitizens(plebeians)andwasdividedintotwosections.Thelowerpart(theimmum)wasforwealthycitizens,whiletheupperpart(thesummum)wasforpoorcitizens.Specificsectorswereprovidedforothersocialgroups:forinstance,boyswiththeirtutors,soldiersonleave,foreigndignitaries,scribes,heralds,priestsandsoon.Stone(andlatermarble)seatingwasprovidedforthecitizensandnobles,whopresumablywouldhavebroughttheirowncushionswiththem.Inscriptionsidentifiedtheareasreservedforspecificgroups. Anotherlevel,themaenianumsecunduminlegneis,wasaddedattheverytopofthebuildingduringthereignofDomitian.Thiscomprisedagalleryforthecommonpoor,slavesandwomen.Itwouldhavebeeneitherstandingroomonly,orwouldhavehadverysteepwoodenbenches.SomegroupswerebannedaltogetherfromtheColosseum,notablygravediggers,actorsandformergladiators.[20] Eachtierwasdividedintosections(maeniana)bycurvedpassagesandlowwalls(praecinctionesorbaltei),andweresubdividedintocunei,orwedges,bythestepsandaislesfromthevomitoria.Eachrow(gradus)ofseatswasnumbered,permittingeachindividualseattobeexactlydesignatedbyitsgradus,cuneus,andnumber.[38] Arenaandhypogeum TheColosseumarena,showingthehypogeumnowfilledwithwalls.ThewallswereaddedearlyintheColosseum'sexistencewhenitwasdecideditwouldnolongerbefloodedandusedfornavalbattles. Thearenaitselfwas83 metersby48 meters(272 ftby157 ft/280by163 Romanfeet).[20]Itcomprisedawoodenfloorcoveredbysand(theLatinwordforsandisharenaorarena),coveringanelaborateundergroundstructurecalledthehypogeum(literallymeaning"underground").ThehypogeumwasnotpartoftheoriginalconstructionbutwasorderedtobebuiltbyEmperorDomitian.Littlenowremainsoftheoriginalarenafloor,butthehypogeumisstillclearlyvisible.Itconsistedofatwo-levelsubterraneannetworkoftunnelsandcagesbeneaththearenawheregladiatorsandanimalswereheldbeforecontestsbegan.Eightyverticalshaftsprovidedinstantaccesstothearenaforcagedanimalsandscenerypiecesconcealedunderneath;largerhingedplatforms,calledhegmata,providedaccessforelephantsandthelike.Itwasrestructuredonnumerousoccasions;atleasttwelvedifferentphasesofconstructioncanbeseen.[20] AviewoftheinterioroftheColosseum;clearingshowingthehypogeum(Greekfor"underground") ThehypogeumwasconnectedbytunnelstoanumberofpointsoutsidetheColosseum.Animalsandperformerswerebroughtthroughthetunnelfromnearbystables,withthegladiators'barracksattheLudusMagnustotheeastalsobeingconnectedbytunnels.SeparatetunnelswereprovidedfortheEmperorandtheVestalVirginstopermitthemtoenterandexittheColosseumwithoutneedingtopassthroughthecrowds.[20] Substantialquantitiesofmachineryalsoexistedinthehypogeum.Elevatorsandpulleysraisedandloweredsceneryandprops,aswellasliftingcagedanimalstothesurfaceforrelease.Thereisevidencefortheexistenceofmajorhydraulicmechanisms[20]andaccordingtoancientaccounts,itwaspossibletofloodthearenarapidly,presumablyviaaconnectiontoanearbyaqueduct.However,theconstructionofthehypogeumatDomitian'sbehestputanendtothepractiseofflooding,andthusalsotonavalbattles,earlyintheColosseum'sexistence. Supportingbuildings TheColosseumanditsactivitiessupportedasubstantialindustryinthearea.Inadditiontotheamphitheatreitself,manyotherbuildingsnearbywerelinkedtothegames.ImmediatelytotheeastistheremainsoftheLudusMagnus,atrainingschoolforgladiators.ThiswasconnectedtotheColosseumbyanundergroundpassage,toalloweasyaccessforthegladiators.TheLudusMagnushaditsownminiaturetrainingarena,whichwasitselfapopularattractionforRomanspectators.Othertrainingschoolswereinthesamearea,includingtheLudusMatutinus(MorningSchool),wherefightersofanimalsweretrained,plustheDacianandGallicSchools. AlsonearbyweretheArmamentarium,comprisinganarmorytostoreweapons;theSummumChoragium,wheremachinerywasstored;theSanitarium,whichhadfacilitiestotreatwoundedgladiators;andtheSpoliarium,wherebodiesofdeadgladiatorswerestrippedoftheirarmoranddisposedof. AroundtheperimeteroftheColosseum,atadistanceof18 m(59 ft)fromtheperimeter,wasaseriesoftallstoneposts,withfiveremainingontheeasternside.Variousexplanationshavebeenadvancedfortheirpresence;theymayhavebeenareligiousboundary,oranouterboundaryforticketchecks,orananchorforthevelariumorawning.[20] Use AveImperator,morituritesalutant(Hail,Cesar,thosewhowilldiesaluteyou),byJean-LéonGérôme,1859 TheColosseumwasusedtohostgladiatorialshowsaswellasavarietyofotherevents.Theshows,calledmunera,werealwaysgivenbyprivateindividualsratherthanthestate.Theyhadastrongreligiouselementbutwerealsodemonstrationsofpowerandfamilyprestige,andwereimmenselypopularwiththepopulation.Anotherpopulartypeofshowwastheanimalhunt,orvenatio.Thisutilizedagreatvarietyofwildbeasts,mainlyimportedfromAfricaandtheMiddleEast,andincludedcreaturessuchasrhinoceros,hippopotamuses,elephants,giraffes,aurochs,wisents,Barbarylions,panthers,leopards,bears,Caspiantigers,crocodilesandostriches.Battlesandhuntswereoftenstagedamidelaboratesetswithmovabletreesandbuildings.Sucheventswereoccasionallyonahugescale;TrajanissaidtohavecelebratedhisvictoriesinDaciain107withcontestsinvolving11,000animalsand10,000gladiatorsoverthecourseof123days.Duringlunchintervals,executionsadbestiaswouldbestaged.Thosecondemnedtodeathwouldbesentintothearena,nakedandunarmed,tofacethebeastsofdeathwhichwouldliterallytearthemtopieces.Otherperformanceswouldalsotakeplacebyacrobatsandmagicians,typicallyduringtheintervals.PolliceVerso(ThumbsDown)byJean-LéonGérôme,1872 DuringtheearlydaysoftheColosseum,ancientwritersrecordedthatthebuildingwasusedfornaumachiae(moreproperlyknownasnavaliaproelia)orsimulatedseabattles.AccountsoftheinauguralgamesheldbyTitusinAD80describeitbeingfilledwithwaterforadisplayofspeciallytrainedswimminghorsesandbulls.Thereisalsoanaccountofare-enactmentofafamousseabattlebetweentheCorcyrean(Corfiot)GreeksandtheCorinthians.Thishasbeenthesubjectofsomedebateamonghistorians;althoughprovidingthewaterwouldnothavebeenaproblem,itisunclearhowthearenacouldhavebeenwaterproofed,norwouldtherehavebeenenoughspaceinthearenaforthewarshipstomovearound.Ithasbeensuggestedthatthereportseitherhavethelocationwrong,orthattheColosseumoriginallyfeaturedawidefloodablechanneldownitscentralaxis(whichwouldlaterhavebeenreplacedbythehypogeum).[20] Sylvaeorrecreationsofnaturalsceneswerealsoheldinthearena.Painters,techniciansandarchitectswouldconstructasimulationofaforestwithrealtreesandbushesplantedinthearena'sfloor,andanimalswouldthenbeintroduced.Suchscenesmightbeusedsimplytodisplayanaturalenvironmentfortheurbanpopulation,orcouldotherwisebeusedasthebackdropforhuntsordramasdepictingepisodesfrommythology.Theywerealsooccasionallyusedforexecutionsinwhichtheheroofthestory–playedbyacondemnedperson–waskilledinoneofvariousgruesomebutmythologicallyauthenticways,suchasbeingmauledbybeastsorburnedtodeath. Modernuse ViewoftheColosseumin2021 TheColosseumtodayisamajortouristattractioninRomewiththousandsoftouristseachyearenteringtoviewtheinteriorarena.[39]ThereisnowamuseumdedicatedtoErosintheupperflooroftheouterwallofthebuilding.Partofthearenafloorhasbeenre-floored.BeneaththeColosseum,anetworkofsubterraneanpassagewaysonceusedtotransportwildanimalsandgladiatorstothearenaopenedtothepublicinsummer2010.[40] TheColosseumisalsothesiteofRomanCatholicceremoniesinthe20thand21stcenturies.Forinstance,PopeBenedictXVIledtheStationsoftheCrosscalledtheScripturalWayoftheCross(whichcallsformoremeditation)attheColosseum[41][42]onGoodFridays.[8] Restoration Colosseumunderrenovation(2015) In2011DiegoDellaValle,headoftheshoefirmTod's,enteredintoanagreementwithlocalofficialstosponsora€25 millionrestorationoftheColosseum.Workwasplannedtobeginattheendof2011,takinguptotwoandahalfyears.[43]Duetothecontroversialnatureofusingapublic–privatepartnershiptofundtherestoration,workwasdelayedandbeganin2013.TherestorationisthefirstfullcleaningandrepairintheColosseum'shistory.[44]ThefirststageistocleanandrestoretheColosseum'sarcadedfaçadeandreplacethemetalenclosuresthatblocktheground-levelarches.Afterthreeyears,theworkwascompletedon1July2016,whentheItalianministerofculture,DarioFranceschini,alsoannouncedthatthefundshavebeencommittedtoreplacethefloorsbytheendof2018.ThesewillprovideastagethatFranceschinisayswillbeusedfor"culturaleventsofthehighestlevel."[45]TheprojectalsoincludescreatingaservicescenterandrestoringthegalleriesandundergroundspacesinsidetheColosseum.[46]Since1November2017,thetoptwolevelshavebeenopenedforguidedvisits.Thefourthlevelheldthemarketplace,andthetopfifthtieriswherethepoorestcitizens,theplebeians,gatheredandwatchedtheshow,bringingpicnicsfortheday-longevent.[47] SignificanceinChristianity TheChristianMartyrs'LastPrayer,byJean-LéonGérôme(1883) ViewoftheinterioroftheColosseum,byC.W.Eckersberg(1815) TheColosseumisgenerallyregardedbyChristiansasasiteofthemartyrdomoflargenumbersofbelieversduringthepersecutionofChristiansintheRomanEmpire,asevidencedbyChurchhistoryandtradition.[48][49][50]Ontheotherhand,otherscholarsbelievethatthemajorityofmartyrdomsmayhaveoccurredatothervenueswithinthecityofRome,ratherthanattheColosseum,citingalackofstill-intactphysicalevidenceorhistoricalrecords.[51][52][53]Thesescholarsassertthat"someChristianswereexecutedascommoncriminalsintheColosseum—theircrimebeingrefusaltoreverencetheRomangods",butmostChristianmartyrsoftheearlyChurchwereexecutedfortheirfaithattheCircusMaximus.[54][55]AccordingtoIrenaeus(diedabout202),IgnatiusofAntiochwasfedtothelionsinRomearound107A.DandalthoughIrenaeussaysnothingaboutthishappeningattheColosseum,traditionascribesittothatplace.[56][57][58][59] IntheMiddleAges,theColosseumwasnotregardedasamonument,andwasusedaswhatsomemodernsourceslabela"quarry,"[60]whichistosaythatstonesfromtheColosseumweretakenforthebuildingofothersacredsites.[61]Thisfactisusedtosupporttheideathat,atatimewhensitesassociatedwithmartyrswerehighlyveneratedtheColosseumwasnotbeingtreatedasasacredsite.[62]Itwasnotincludedintheitinerariescompiledfortheuseofpilgrimsnorinworkssuchasthe12thcenturyMirabiliaUrbisRomae("MarvelsoftheCityofRome"),whichclaimstheCircusFlaminius–butnottheColosseum–asthesiteofmartyrdoms.[63]PartofthestructurewasinhabitedbyaChristianreligiousorder,butitisnotknownwhetherthiswasforanyparticularreligiousreason. PopePiusV(1566–1572)issaidtohaverecommendedthatpilgrimsgathersandfromthearenaoftheColosseumtoserveasarelic,onthegroundsthatitwasimpregnatedwiththebloodofmartyrs,althoughsomeofhiscontemporariesdidnotsharehisconviction.[64]AcenturylaterFioravanteMartinellilistedtheColosseumattheheadofalistofplacessacredtothemartyrsinhis1653bookRomaexethnicasacra.Martinelli'sbookevidentlyhadaneffectonpublicopinion;inresponsetoCardinalAltieri'sproposalsomeyearslatertoturntheColosseumintoabullring,CarloTomassipublishedapamphletinprotestagainstwhatheregardedasanactofdesecration.TheensuingcontroversypersuadedPopeClementXtoclosetheColosseum'sexternalarcadesanddeclareitasanctuary.[65] CrossdedicatedtotheChristianmartyrs,placedin2000byPopeJohnPaulII. AttheinsistenceofSt.LeonardofPortMaurice,PopeBenedictXIV(1740–1758)forbadethequarryingoftheColosseumanderectedStationsoftheCrossaroundthearena,whichremaineduntilFebruary1874.[66]BenedictJosephLabrespentthelateryearsofhislifewithinthewallsoftheColosseum,livingonalms,beforehediedin1783.[66]Several19thcenturypopesfundedrepairandrestorationworkontheColosseum,anditstillretainsitsChristianconnectiontoday.AChristiancrossstandsintheColosseum,withaplaque,stating: Theamphitheater,oneconsecratedtotriumphs,entertainments,andtheimpiousworshipofpagangods,isnowdedicatedtothesufferingsofthemartyrspurifiedfromimpioussuperstitions.[56] OtherChristiancrossesstandinseveralpointsaroundthearenaandeveryGoodFridaythePopeleadsaViaCrucisprocessiontotheamphitheater. Flora Weedcontrol TheColosseumhasawideandwell-documentedhistoryoffloraeversinceDomenicoPanarolimadethefirstcatalogueofitsplantsin1643.Sincethen,684specieshavebeenidentifiedthere.Thepeakwasin1855(420species).Attemptsweremadein1871toeradicatethevegetation,becauseofconcernsoverthedamagethatwasbeingcausedtothemasonry,butmuchofithasreturned.[20]242specieshavebeencountedtodayandofthespeciesfirstidentifiedbyPanaroli,200remain. ThevariationofplantscanbeexplainedbythechangeofclimateinRomethroughthecenturies.Additionally,birdmigration,flowerblooming,andthegrowthofRomethatcausedtheColosseumtobecomeembeddedwithinthemoderncitycentreratherthanontheoutskirtsoftheancientcity,aswellasdeliberatetransportofspecies,arealsocontributingcauses.Anotherreasonoftengivenistheirseedsbeingunwittinglytransportedeitheronthefurorinthefecesofanimalsbroughttherefromallcornersoftheempire.[67] Inpopularculture TheColosseumhasappearedinnumerousfilms,artworksandgames.It'sfeaturedinmoviessuchasRomanHoliday,Gladiator,TheWayoftheDragon,TheCoreandJumperandgameslikeAssassin'sCreed:Brotherhood,Ryse:SonofRomeandForgeofEmpires. Severalarchitecturalworkshavealsobeenmodelledonorinspiredby,theColosseum.Theseinclude: TheKongresshalle,or"CongressHall",(1935,unfinished)attheNaziPartyRallygrounds,Nuremberg,Germany TheSummerOlympicGamesmedalfrom1928to2000,designedbyGiuseppeCassioli,featuresadepictionoftheColosseum.Atthe2004SummerOlympicsinAthenstheColosseumwasreplacedbyadepictionofthePanathinaikoStadium TheexterioroftheVancouverPublicLibraryinBritishColumbiaresemblesthecurrentstateoftheColosseum.ItwasdesignedbyMosheSafdie. TheLosAngelesMemorialColiseumentrancewasinspiredbytheColosseum. ThePalazzodellaCiviltaItalianawasverycloselymodelledontheColosseum.ItwasbuiltforMussolinifortheUniversalExhibitionof1942buttheexhibitionneverhappenedduetotheoutbreakofWorldWarII.ThearchitectswereGiovanniGuerrini,ErnestoBrunoLaPadula,andMarioRomano. McCaig'sTower,overlookingOban,Scotland. Thislistisincomplete;youcanhelpbyaddingmissingitems.(August2011) Gallery TheColosseumin2021 ColosseumandtheArchofConstantineseenfromPalatine Interior Interior Colosseumatnight Seatingtiersattheeastentrance Colosseum2013 Seealso StadiumofDomitian –AncientRomanstadium,alandmarkofRome,Italy ListofRomanamphitheatres Romanamphitheatre –AncientRomanopen-airvenues Portals: Catholicism Architecture History References Notes ^Hopkins,p.2 ^"BBC'sHistoryoftheColosseump.2".Bbc.co.uk.22March2011.Retrieved16April2012. ^abcdefRoth,LelandM.(1993).UnderstandingArchitecture:ItsElements,HistoryandMeaning(First ed.).Boulder,CO:WestviewPress.ISBN 978-0-06-430158-9. ^WilliamH.ByrnesIV(Spring2005)"AncientRomanMunificence:TheDevelopmentofthePracticeandLawofCharity".RutgersLawReviewvol.57,issue3,pp.1043–1110. ^"BBC'sHistoryoftheColosseump.1".Bbc.co.uk.22March2011.Retrieved16April2012. ^Baldwin,Eleonora(2012).Romedaybyday.Hoboken:JohnWiley&SonsInc.p. 26.ISBN 978-1-118-16629-1. ^"TheNewSevenWondersoftheWorld".HindustanTimes.July8,2007.ArchivedfromtheoriginalonSeptember30,2007.RetrievedJuly11,2007. ^ab"Frommer'sEvents–EventGuide:GoodFridayProcessioninRome(PalatineHill,Italy)".Frommer's.Archivedfromtheoriginalon7January2009.Retrieved8April2008. ^abcdefghijklmn"Colosseum,n.",OxfordEnglishDictionaryOnline(3rd,online ed.),2011 ^J.C.Edmondson;SteveMason;J.B.Rives(2005).FlaviusJosephusandFlavianRome.OxfordUniversityPress.p. 114.ISBN 978-0-19-926212-0. ^"TheColosseum–History1".Retrieved26January2008. ^Mairui,Amedeo.Studiericerchesull'AnfiteatroFlavioPuteolano.Napoli :G.Macchiaroli,1955.(OCLC2078742) ^Richardson,Jr.,L.(1992).JohnsHopkinsUniversity(ed.).ANewTopographicalDictionaryofAncientRome.JHUPress.p. 7.ISBN 9780801843006. ^abc"†Colisee,n.",OxfordEnglishDictionaryOnline(3rd,online ed.),2011 ^MentionedinSuetonius,"Vespasian"18;Pliny'sNaturalHistoryXXXIV.45;CassiusDioLXV.15. ^Hist.Aug.Com.17;CassiusDioLXXII.22. ^Ensoli,Serena(2007).Perrin,Yves(ed.)."IlColossodiNerone-SolaRoma:una'falsa'imitazionedelColossodiHeliosaRodi.ApropositodellatestimonianzadiPlinioedellaricostruzionedelbasamentonellavalledelColosseo".NeroniaVII.Rome,l'ItalieetlaGrèce.HellénismeetphilhellénismeaupremiersiècleaprèsJ.-C.ActesduVIIecolloqueinternationaldelaSIEN(Athènes,21-23octobre2004)(inFrench).Brussels:ÉditionsLatomus:406–427. ^"TheColiseum".TheCatholicEncyclopedia.NewAdvent.Retrieved2August2006.;theformquotedfromthePseudo-BedeisthatprintedinMigne,Pat.Lat94(Paris),1862:543,notedinF.Schneider,RomundRomgedankeimMittelalter(Munich)1926:66f,251,andinRobertoWeiss,TheRenaissanceDiscoveryofClassicalAntiquity(Oxford:Blackwell)1973:8andnote5. ^Ensoli,Serena;LaRocca,Eugenio(2000).AureaRoma:dallacittàpaganaallacittàcristiana(inItalian).Rome:L'ErmadiBretschneider.p. 67.ISBN 978-88-8265-126-8.Retrieved10April2022. ^abcdefghijklmnopqClaridge,Amanda(1998).Rome:AnOxfordArchaeologicalGuide(First ed.).Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress.pp. 276–282.ISBN 978-0-19-288003-1. ^"The-Colosseum.net:BeforetheColosseum".www.the-colosseum.net.Retrieved19September2019. ^Elkins,p.23 ^"BuildingtheColosseum".tribunesandtriumphs.org. ^Sear,DavidR.(2000).RomanCoinsandTheirValues–TheMillenniumEdition.VolumeI:TheRepublicandTheTwelveCaesars,280BC–96AD(pp.468–469,coin#2536).London:Spink.ISBN 1-902040-35-X ^Alföldy,Géza(1995)."EineBauinschriftAusDemColosseum".ZeitschriftfürPapyrologieundEpigraphik.109:195–226. ^Cass.Diolxxviii.25. ^Therepairsofthedamagesinflictedbytheearthquakeof484werepaidforbytheConsulDeciusMariusVenantiusBasilius,whoputtwoinscriptionstocelebratehisworks(CILVI,1716). ^"MEDIVMAEVVM".The-Colosseum.The-Colosseum.Net.Retrieved1November2016.Namestheorder:ArciconfraternitadelSS.SalvatoreadSanctaSanctorum,akadelGonfalone.Co-tenants:theRomanSenateandtheCameraApostolica."In1519TheConfraternitabuiltthelittlechapelofSantaMariadellaPietàinsidetheColosseum." ^"Rome."EncyclopædiaBritannica.2006. ^TheColiseuminCatholicEncyclopedia ^Young,Gayle(24February2000)."OnItaly'spassionateoppositiontodeathpenalty".CNN.Retrieved2August2006. ^"International:RomanColosseumLittoMarkConnecticut'sAbolitionofDeathPenalty".DeathPenaltyInfo.Retrieved9June2015. ^Colosseumstagespeaceconcert,BBCNewsOnline,12May2002. ^McCartneyrockstheColosseum,BBCNewsOnline,12May2003. ^SirElton'sfreegigthrillsRome,BBCNewsOnline,4September2005. ^IanArchibaldRichmond,DonaldEmrysStrong,JanetDeLaine."Colosseum",TheOxfordCompaniontoClassicalCivilization.Ed.SimonHornblowerandAntonySpawforth.OxfordUniversityPress,1998. ^Downey,CharlesT.(9February2005)."TheColosseumWasaSkydome?".Retrieved2August2006. ^SamuelBallPlatner(ascompletedandrevisedbyThomasAshby),ATopographicalDictionaryofAncientRome.OxfordUniversityPress,1929. ^TheColosseum.net :TheresourcefulsiteontheColosseum. ^Squires,Nick(23June2010)."Colosseumtoopengladiatorpassagewaysforfirsttime".TheDailyTelegraph.UK.Archivedfromtheoriginalon11January2022.Retrieved30January2011. ^JosephMChamplin,TheStationsoftheCrossWithPopeJohnPaulIILiguoriPublications,1994,ISBN 0-89243-679-4. ^VaticanDescriptionoftheStationsoftheCrossattheColosseum:Pcf.va ^"RomeColosseumrepairtobefundedbyTodsshoefirm".BBCNews.BBC.21January2011.Retrieved16April2012. ^Silvers,Eric(25April2014)."TheColosseum'sBadlyNeededBath".TheWallStreetJournal.Retrieved7September2014. ^"ItalyCompletesaLongOverdueRestorationofRome'sIconicColosseum".3July2016. ^Povoledo,Elisabetta(31July2012)."ColosseumWon'tBeRestoredinaDay,butWorkIsFinallyScheduledtoStart".Retrieved17June2015. ^Donati,Silvia(5October2017)."ColosseumToOpenTopLevelstothePublic". ^"The-Colosseum.net:Antiquity".the-colosseum.net. ^"CatholicEncyclopedia:TheColiseum".newadvent.org. ^"Colosseum&ChristianMartyrs".tribunesandtriumphs.org. ^Hopkins,p.103 ^Brockman,NorbertC.(2011).EncyclopediaofSacredPlaces[2volumes].ABC-CLIO.p. 108.ISBN 978-1-59884-655-3.Publicexecutionswereheldthereduringtheempire,anditisfortheselasteventsthattheColosseumbecameaChristianshrine.ItisdisputedwhethermanyearlyChristianmartyrsactuallydiedintheColosseum,sincethereisnomentionofthatinancientChristianrecords. ^Polidoro,Massimo(2018)."MythsandSecretsoftheColosseum".SkepticalInquirer.42(1):15–17.Archivedfromtheoriginalon18June2018.Retrieved19June2018. ^Brockman,NorbertC.(2011).EncyclopediaofSacredPlaces[2volumes].ABC-CLIO.p. 108.ISBN 978-1-59884-655-3.ThereseemslittledoubtthatsomeChristianswereexecutedascommoncriminalsintheColosseum-theircrimebeingrefusaltoreverencetheRomangods.Mostmartyrs,however,diedfortheirfaithattheCircusMaximus.SomewereevenexecutedasmembersofwhattheRomansconsideredaJewishsect,sincebothJewsandChristiansrefusedtoreverencethegods. ^Potter,DavidStone(1999).Life,Death,andEntertainmentintheRomanEmpire.UniversityofMichiganPress.p. 227.ISBN 978-0-472-08568-2.Thepublicexecutionofcondemnedoffenders,includingChristians,isassociatedaboveallwiththeamphitheater,althoughtherewereexecutionsatvariousothervenues.Gladiatorialgames,huntingdisplays,andexecutionsalsotookplaceattheCircusMaximus,evenaftertheconstructionoftheColosseum(Humphrey1987,121). ^abLitfin,BryanM.(2007).GettingtoKnowtheChurchFathers:AnEvangelicalIntroduction.BrazosPress.p. 44.ISBN 978-1-4412-0074-7.ButaccordingtoIrenaeus(whospenttimeinRomenotlongaftertheseeventstookplace)IgnatiusdidinfactmeethisendbybeingtornapartbywildanimalsfortheamusementoftheRomanmasses,probablyintheinfamousColosseum.Thecrowdtherethatdaywouldhaveviewedthespectacleasacrushingdefeatofthismeekman'sChristianreligion.ButIgnatiusunderstoodhisdeathtobeashoutofvictory.TodayaChristiancrossstandsintheColosseumofRomewithaplaquethatreads,"Theamphitheater,oneconsecratedtotriumphs,entertainments,andtheimpiousworshipofpagangods,isnowdedicatedtothesufferingsofthemartyrspurifiedfromimpioussuperstitions." ^Flinn,FrankK.(2006).EncyclopediaofCatholicism.InfobasePublishing.p. 359.ISBN 978-0-8160-7565-2.HewascaughtupinthegeneralpersecutionofthechurchundertheemperorTrajan(r.98–117),broughttoRome,andfedtothelionsintheColiseumaround107C.E.Hisfeastdayis17October.Beforehisexecution,Ignatiuswrotesevenletterstothechurchesalonghisroute,oneeachtoEphesus,Magnesia,Tralles,andPhiladelphia,twotothechurchatSmyrna,andonetoSmyrna'sbishop,Polycarp.Thelettersarearichsourceaboutearlytheology,liturgy,andchurchorganization. ^Hopkins,p.103:"ItislikelythatChristianswereputtodeaththereandthatthosesaidtohavebeenmartyred'inRome'actuallydiedintheColosseum.But,despitewhatweareoftentold,thatisonlyaguess.OneofthepossiblecandidatesformartyrdomintheColosseumisSt.Ignatius,abishopofAntioch(inSyria)atthebeginningofthesecondcenturyAD,whowas'condemnedtothebeasts'atRome." ^Brockman,NorbertC.(2011).EncyclopediaofSacredPlaces[2volumes].ABC-CLIO.p. 108.ISBN 978-1-59884-655-3.TheChristianswhodiddieintheColosseumoftendidsounderdramaticcircumstances,thuscementingthelegend.TheheroSt.IgnatiusofAntioch,adiscipleofSt.JohntheBeloved,wassenttothebeastsbyTrajanin107.Shortlyafter,115Christianswerekilledbyarchers.WhenChristiansrefusedtopraytothegodsfortheendofaplagueinthelatterpartofthesecondcentury,MarcusAureliushadthousandskilledintheColosseumforblasphemy. ^Hopkins,p.160:"FormostoftheMiddleAgesandearlyRenaissancetheColosseumwasnotsomuchamonumentasaquarry.Todescribethisactivityas'robbery'istogivethewrongimpression.Forthemostpart,therewasnothingillegalorunofficialabouttheremovalofthisstone." ^"The-Colosseum.net:1300–1700".the-colosseum.net. ^"TheColiseum".CatholicEncyclopedia.NewAdvent.Retrieved24April2014.IntheMiddleAges,forexample,whenthesanctuariesofthemartyrswerelookeduponwithsogreatveneration,theColiseumwascompletelyneglected;itsnameneveroccursintheitineraries,orguide-books,compilerfortheuseofpilgrimstotheEternalCity. ^"TheColiseum".CatholicEncyclopedia.NewAdvent.Retrieved24April2014.The"MirabiliaRomae",thefirstmanuscriptsofwhichdatefromthetwelfthcentury,citesamongtheplacesmentionedinthe"Passions"ofthemartyrstheCircusFlaminiusadpontemJudaeorum,butinthissensemakesnoallusiontotheColiseum. ^"TheColiseum".CatholicEncyclopedia.NewAdvent.Retrieved24April2014.PopeSt.Pius(1566–72)issaidtohaverecommendedpersonsdesirousofobtainingrelicstoprocuresomesandfromthearenaoftheColiseum,which,thepopedeclared,wasimpregnatedwiththebloodofmartyrs.Theopinionofthesaintlypontiff,however,doesnotseemtohavebeensharedbyhiscontemporaries. ^"TheColiseum".CatholicEncyclopedia.NewAdvent.Retrieved24April2014.Thepamphletwassocompletelysuccessfulthatfouryearslater,thejubileeyearof1675,theexteriorarcadeswereclosedbyorderofClementX;fromthistimetheColiseumbecameasanctuary. ^ab"TheColiseum".CatholicEncyclopedia.NewAdvent.Retrieved24April2014.AttheinstanceofSt.LeonardofPortMaurice,BenedictXIV(1740-58)erectedStationsoftheCrossintheColiseum,whichremaineduntilFebruary,1874,whentheywereremovedbyorderofCommendatoreRosa.St.BenedictJosephLabre(d.1783)passedalifeofausteredevotion,livingonalms,withinthewallsoftheColiseum. ^Cooper,Paul(5December2017)."Rome'sColosseumWasOnceaWild,TangledGarden".TheAtlantic.Retrieved12January2018. Bibliography Coarelli,Filippo(1989).GuidaArcheologicadiRoma.Milano:ArnoldoMondadoriEditore.ISBN 978-88-04-11896-1. Elkins,NathanT.(2019).AMonumenttoDynastyandDeath:TheStoryofRome'sColosseumandtheEmperorsWhoBuiltIt.Baltimore,MD:JohnsHopkinsUniversityPress.ISBN 9781421432557. Hopkins,Keith;Beard,Mary(2005).TheColosseum.Cambridge,MA:HarvardUniversityPress.ISBN 978-0-674-01895-2. Externallinks Officialwebsite VirtualtouroftheColosseum A3DmodelofColosseumonSketchfab "Colosseum" .TheNewStudent'sReferenceWork .1914. 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