The Case Against the Death Penalty - American Civil Liberties ...

The death penalty is a waste of taxpayer funds and has no public safety benefit. The vast majority of law enforcement professionals surveyed agree that capital ... 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TheCaseAgainsttheDeathPenaltyTheAmericanCivilLibertiesUnionbelievesthedeathpenaltyinherentlyviolatestheconstitutionalbanagainstcruelandunusualpunishmentandtheguaranteesofdueprocessoflawandofequalprotectionunderthelaw.Furthermore,webelievethatthestateshouldnotgiveitselftherighttokillhumanbeings–especiallywhenitkillswithpremeditationandceremony,inthenameofthelaworinthenameofitspeople,andwhenitdoessoinanarbitraryanddiscriminatoryfashion.Capitalpunishmentisanintolerabledenialofcivillibertiesandisinconsistentwiththefundamentalvaluesofourdemocraticsystem. Thedeathpenaltyisuncivilizedintheoryandunfairandinequitableinpractice. Throughlitigation,legislation,andadvocacyagainstthisbarbaricandbrutalinstitution,westrivetopreventexecutionsandseektheabolitionofcapitalpunishment. TheACLU’soppositiontocapitalpunishmentincorporatesthefollowingfundamentalconcerns:ThedeathpenaltysystemintheUSisappliedinanunfairandunjustmanneragainstpeople,largelydependentonhowmuchmoneytheyhave,theskilloftheirattorneys,raceofthevictimandwherethecrimetookplace. Peopleofcolorarefarmorelikelytobeexecutedthanwhitepeople,especiallyifthevictimiswhiteThedeathpenaltyisawasteoftaxpayerfundsandhasnopublicsafetybenefit.Thevastmajorityoflawenforcementprofessionalssurveyedagreethatcapitalpunishmentdoesnotdeterviolentcrime;asurveyofpolicechiefsnationwidefoundtheyrankthedeathpenaltylowestamongwaystoreduceviolentcrime. Theyrankedincreasingthenumberofpoliceofficers,reducingdrugabuse,andcreatingabettereconomywithmorejobshigherthanthedeathpenaltyasthebestwaystoreduceviolence. TheFBIhasfoundthestateswiththedeathpenaltyhavethehighestmurderrates.Innocentpeoplearetoooftensentencedtodeath. Since1973,over156 peoplehavebeenreleasedfromdeathrowsin26statesbecauseofinnocence. Nationally,atleastonepersonisexoneratedforevery10thatareexecuted.   INTRODUCTIONTOTHE“MODERNERA”OFTHEDEATHPENALTYINTHEUNITEDSTATESIn1972,theSupremeCourtdeclaredthatunderthen-existinglaws"theimpositionandcarryingoutofthedeathpenalty…constitutescruelandunusualpunishmentinviolationoftheEighthandFourteenthAmendments."(Furmanv.Georgia,408U.S.238).TheCourt,concentratingitsobjectionsonthemannerinwhichdeathpenaltylawshadbeenapplied,foundtheresultso"harsh,freakish,andarbitrary"astobeconstitutionallyunacceptable. Makingthenationwideimpactofitsdecisionunmistakable,theCourtsummarilyreverseddeathsentencesinthemanycasesthenbeforeit,whichinvolvedawiderangeofstatestatutes,crimesandfactualsituations.ButwithinfouryearsaftertheFurmandecision,severalhundredpersonshadbeensentencedtodeathundernewstatecapitalpunishmentstatuteswrittentoprovideguidancetojuriesinsentencing.Thesestatutesrequireatwo-stagetrialprocedure,inwhichthejuryfirstdeterminesguiltorinnocenceandthenchoosesimprisonmentordeathinthelightofaggravatingormitigatingcircumstances.In1976,theSupremeCourtmovedawayfromabolition,holdingthat"thepunishmentofdeathdoesnotinvariablyviolatetheConstitution." TheCourtruledthatthenewdeathpenaltystatutescontained"objectivestandardstoguide,regularize,andmakerationallyreviewabletheprocessforimposingthesentenceofdeath."(Greggv.Georgia,428U.S.153).Subsequently38statelegislaturesandtheFederalgovernmentenacteddeathpenaltystatutespatternedafterthosetheCourtupheldinGregg. Congressalsoenactedandexpandedfederaldeathpenaltystatutesforpeacetimeespionagebymilitarypersonnelandforavastrangeofcategoriesofmurder.Executionsresumedin1977. In2002,theSupremeCourtheldexecutionsofmentallyretardedcriminalsare“cruelandunusualpunishments”prohibitedbytheEighthAmendmenttotheConstitution. Sincethen,stateshavedevelopedarangeofprocessestoensurethatmentallyretardedindividualsarenotexecuted. Manyhaveelectedtoholdproceedingspriortothemeritstrial,manywithjuries,todeterminewhetheranaccusedismentallyretarded. In2005,theSupremeCourtheldthattheEighthandFourteenthAmendmentstotheConstitutionforbidimpositionofthedeathpenaltyonoffenderswhowereundertheageof18whentheircrimeswerecommitted,resultingincommutationofdeathsentencestolifefordozensofindividualsacrossthecountry. AsofAugust2012,over3,200menandwomenareunderadeathsentenceandmorethan1,300men,womenandchildren(atthetimeofthecrime)havebeenexecutedsince1976. ACLUOBJECTIONSTOTHEDEATHPENALTYDespitetheSupremeCourt's1976rulinginGreggv.Georgia,etal,theACLUcontinuestoopposecapitalpunishmentonmoral,practical,andconstitutionalgrounds:Capitalpunishmentiscruelandunusual.Itiscruelbecauseitisarelicoftheearliestdaysofpenology,whenslavery,branding,andothercorporalpunishmentswerecommonplace.Likethosebarbaricpractices,executionshavenoplaceinacivilizedsociety.ItisunusualbecauseonlytheUnitedStatesofallthewesternindustrializednationsengagesinthispunishment. ItisalsounusualbecauseonlyarandomsamplingofconvictedmurderersintheUnitedStatesreceiveasentenceofdeath.Capitalpunishmentdeniesdueprocessoflaw.Itsimpositionisoftenarbitrary,andalwaysirrevocable–foreverdeprivinganindividualoftheopportunitytobenefitfromnewevidenceornewlawsthatmightwarrantthereversalofaconviction,orthesettingasideofadeathsentence.Thedeathpenaltyviolatestheconstitutionalguaranteeofequalprotection.Itisappliedrandomly–anddiscriminatorily.Itisimposeddisproportionatelyuponthosewhosevictimsarewhite,offenderswhoarepeopleofcolor,andonthosewhoarepooranduneducatedandconcentratedincertaingeographicregionsofthecountry.Thedeathpenaltyisnotaviableformofcrimecontrol.Whenpolicechiefswereaskedtorankthefactorsthat,intheirjudgment,reducetherateofviolentcrime,theymentionedcurbingdruguseandputtingmoreofficersonthestreet,longersentencesandguncontrol.Theyrankedthedeathpenaltyasleasteffective. Politicianswhopreachthedesirabilityofexecutionsasamethodofcrimecontroldeceivethepublicandmasktheirownfailuretoidentifyandconfrontthetruecausesofcrime.Capitalpunishmentwasteslimitedresources.Itsquandersthetimeandenergyofcourts,prosecutingattorneys,defensecounsel,juries,andcourtroomandlawenforcementpersonnel.Itundulyburdensthecriminaljusticesystem,anditisthuscounterproductiveasaninstrumentforsociety'scontrolofviolentcrime. Limitedfundsthatcouldbeusedtopreventandsolvecrime(andprovideeducationandjobs)arespentoncapitalpunishment.Opposingthedeathpenaltydoesnotindicatealackofsympathyformurdervictims.Onthecontrary,murderdemonstratesalackofrespectforhumanlife.Becauselifeispreciousanddeathirrevocable,murderisabhorrent,andapolicyofstate-authorizedkillingsisimmoral.Itepitomizesthetragicinefficacyandbrutalityofviolence,ratherthanreason,asthesolutiontodifficultsocialproblems.Manymurdervictimsdonotsupportstate-sponsoredviolencetoavengethedeathoftheirlovedone. Sadly,thesevictimshaveoftenbeenmarginalizedbypoliticiansandprosecutors,whowouldratherpublicizetheopinionsofpro-deathpenaltyfamilymembers.Changesindeathsentencinghaveprovedtobelargelycosmetic.Thedefectsindeath-penaltylaws,concededbytheSupremeCourtintheearly1970s,havenotbeenappreciablyalteredbytheshiftfromunrestraineddiscretionto"guideddiscretion."Suchso-called“reforms”indeathsentencingmerelymasktheimpermissiblerandomnessofaprocessthatresultsinanexecution.Asocietythatrespectslifedoesnotdeliberatelykillhumanbeings.Anexecutionisaviolentpublicspectacleofofficialhomicide,andonethatendorseskillingtosolvesocialproblems–theworstpossibleexampletosetforthecitizenry,andespeciallychildren.Governmentsworldwidehaveoftenattemptedtojustifytheirlethalfurybyextollingthepurportedbenefitsthatsuchkillingwouldbringtotherestofsociety.Thebenefitsofcapitalpunishmentareillusory,butthebloodshedandtheresultingdestructionofcommunitydecencyarereal. CAPITALPUNISHMENTISNOTADETERRENTTOCAPITALCRIMESDeterrenceisafunctionnotonlyofapunishment'sseverity,butalsoofitscertaintyandfrequency.Theargumentmostoftencitedinsupportofcapitalpunishmentisthatthethreatofexecutioninfluencescriminalbehaviormoreeffectivelythanimprisonmentdoes.Asplausibleasthisclaimmaysound,inactualitythedeathpenaltyfailsasadeterrentforseveralreasons.Apunishmentcanbeaneffectivedeterrentonlyifitisconsistentlyandpromptlyemployed.Capitalpunishmentcannotbeadministeredtomeettheseconditions.Theproportionoffirst-degreemurdererswhoaresentencedtodeathissmall,andofthisgroup,anevensmallerproportionofpeopleareexecuted.Althoughdeathsentencesinthemid-1990sincreasedtoabout300peryear,thisisstillonlyaboutonepercentofallhomicidesknowntothepolice.Ofallthoseconvictedonachargeofcriminalhomicide,only3percent–about1in33–areeventuallysentencedtodeath. Between2001-2009,theaveragenumberofdeathsentencesperyeardroppedto137,reducingthepercentageevenmore.  Thistinyfractionofconvictedmurderersdonotrepresentthe“worstoftheworst”.Mandatorydeathsentencingisunconstitutional.Thepossibilityofincreasingthenumberofconvictedmurdererssentencedtodeathandexecutedbyenactingmandatorydeathpenaltylawswasruledunconstitutionalin1976(Woodsonv.NorthCarolina,428U.S.280).Aconsiderabletimebetweentheimpositionofthedeathsentenceandtheactualexecutionisunavoidable,giventheproceduralsafeguardsrequiredbythecourtsincapitalcases.Startingwithselectingthetrialjury,murdertrialstakefarlongerwhentheultimatepenaltyisinvolved.Furthermore,post-convictionappealsindeath-penaltycasesarefarmorefrequentthaninothercases.Thesefactorsincreasethetimeandcostofadministeringcriminaljustice.Wecanreducedelayandcostsonlybyabandoningtheproceduralsafeguardsandconstitutionalrightsofsuspects,defendants,andconvicts–withtheattendanthighriskofconvictingthewrongpersonandexecutingtheinnocent. Thisisnotarealisticprospect:ourlegalsystemwillneverreverseitselftodenydefendantstherighttocounsel,ortherighttoanappeal. Personswhocommitmurderandothercrimesofpersonalviolenceoftendonotpremeditatetheircrimes.Mostcapitalcrimesarecommittedintheheatofthemoment.Mostcapitalcrimesarecommittedduringmomentsofgreatemotionalstressorundertheinfluenceofdrugsoralcohol,whenlogicalthinkinghasbeensuspended.Manycapitalcrimesarecommittedbythebadlyemotionally-damagedormentallyill.Insuchcases,violenceisinflictedbypersonsunabletoappreciatetheconsequencestothemselvesaswellastoothers.Evenwhencrimeisplanned,thecriminalordinarilyconcentratesonescapingdetection,arrest,andconviction.Thethreatofeventheseverestpunishmentwillnotdiscouragethosewhoexpecttoescapedetectionandarrest.Itisimpossibletoimaginehowthethreatofanypunishmentcouldpreventacrimethatisnotpremeditated.Furthermore,thedeathpenaltyisafutilethreatforpoliticalterrorists,likeTimothyMcVeigh,becausetheyusuallyactinthenameofanideologythathonorsitsmartyrs.Capitalpunishmentdoesn'tsolveoursociety'scrimeproblem.Threateningcapitalpunishmentleavestheunderlyingcausesofcrimeunaddressed,andignoresthemanypoliticalanddiplomaticsanctions(suchastreatiesagainstasylumforinternationalterrorists)thatcouldappreciablylowertheincidenceofterrorism.Capitalpunishmenthasbeenauselessweaponintheso-called"warondrugs."Theattempttoreducemurdersinthedrugtradebythreatofseverepunishmentignoresthefactthatanyonetraffickinginillegaldrugsisalreadyriskinghislifeinviolentcompetitionwithotherdealers.Itisirrationaltothinkthatthedeathpenalty–aremotethreatatbest–willavertmurderscommittedindrugturfwarsorbystreet-leveldealers.If,however,severepunishmentcandetercrime,thenpermanentimprisonmentissevereenoughtodeteranyrationalpersonfromcommittingaviolentcrime.Thevastpreponderanceoftheevidenceshowsthatthedeathpenaltyisnomoreeffectivethanimprisonmentindeterringmurderandthatitmayevenbeanincitementtocriminalviolence.Death-penaltystatesasagroupdonothavelowerratesofcriminalhomicidethannon-death-penaltystates.Useofthedeathpenaltyinagivenstatemayactuallyincreasethesubsequentrateofcriminalhomicide. Why?Perhapsbecause"areturntotheexerciseofthedeathpenaltyweakenssociallybasedinhibitionsagainsttheuseoflethalforcetosettledisputes…."Inadjacentstates–onewiththedeathpenaltyandtheotherwithoutit–thestatethatpracticesthedeathpenaltydoesnotalwaysshowaconsistentlylowerrateofcriminalhomicide.Forexample,betweenl990andl994,thehomicideratesinWisconsinandIowa(non-death-penaltystates)werehalftheratesoftheirneighbor,Illinois–whichrestoredthedeathpenaltyinl973,andby1994hadsentenced223personstodeathandcarriedouttwoexecutions.Between2000-2010,themurderrateinstateswithcapitalpunishmentwas25-46%higherthanstateswithoutthedeathpenalty.On-dutypoliceofficersdonotsufferahigherrateofcriminalassaultandhomicideinabolitioniststatesthantheydoindeath-penaltystates.Between1976and1989,forexample,lethalassaultsagainstpolicewerenotsignificantlymoreorlessfrequentinabolitioniststatesthanindeath-penaltystates. Capitalpunishmentdidnotappeartoprovideofficersaddedprotectionduringthattimeframe. Infact,thethreeleadingstatesinlawenforcementhomicidein1996werealsoveryactivedeathpenaltystates:California(highestdeathrowpopulation),Texas(mostexecutionssince1976),andFlorida(thirdhighestinexecutionsanddeathrowpopulation). TheSouth,whichaccountsformorethan80%ofthecountry’sexecutions,alsohasthehighestmurderrateofanyregioninthecountry. Ifanything,thedeathpenaltyincitedviolenceratherthancurbedit.Prisonersandprisonpersonneldonotsufferahigherrateofcriminalassaultandhomicidefromlife-termprisonersinabolitionstatesthantheydoindeath-penaltystates.Between1992and1995,176inmatesweremurderedbyotherprisoners. Thevastmajorityofthoseinmates(84%)werekilledindeathpenaltyjurisdictions.Duringthesameperiod,about2%ofallinmateassaultsonprisonstaffwerecommittedinabolitionjurisdictions. Evidently,thethreatofthedeathpenalty"doesnotevenexertanincrementaldeterrenteffectoverthethreatofalesserpunishmentintheabolitioniststates." Furthermore,multiplestudieshaveshownthatprisonerssentencedtolifewithoutparolehaveequivalentratesofprisonviolenceascomparedtootherinmates.Actualexperiencethusestablishesbeyondareasonabledoubtthatthedeathpenaltydoesnotdetermurder.Nocomparablebodyofevidencecontradictsthatconclusion.Furthermore,therearedocumentedcasesinwhichthedeathpenaltyactuallyincitedthecapitalcrimesitwassupposedtodeter.Theseincludeinstancesoftheso-calledsuicide-by-executionsyndrome–personswhowantedtodiebutfearedtakingtheirownlives,andcommittedmurdersothatthestatewouldkillthem. Forexample,in1996,DanielColwell,whosufferedfrommentalillness,claimedthathekilledarandomly-selectedcoupleinaGeorgiaparkinglotsothatthestatewouldkillhim–hewassentencedtodeathandultimatelytookhisownlifewhileondeathrow.Althoughinflictingthedeathpenaltyguaranteesthatthecondemnedpersonwillcommitnofurthercrimes,itdoesnothaveademonstrabledeterrenteffectonotherindividuals.Further,itisahighpricetopaywhenstudiesshowthatfewconvictedmurdererscommitfurthercrimesofviolence.Researchersexaminedtheprisonandpost-releaserecordsof533prisonersondeathrowin1972whosesentenceswerereducedtoincarcerationforlifebytheSupremeCourt'srulinginFurman.Thisresearchshowedthatsevenhadcommittedanothermurder.Butthesamestudyshowedthatinfourothercases,aninnocentmanhadbeensentencedtodeath.(MarquartandSorensen,inLoyolaofLosAngelesLawReview1989)Recidivismamongmurderersdoesoccasionallyhappen,butitoccurslessfrequentlythanmostpeoplebelieve;themediararelydistinguishbetweenaconvictedoffenderwhomurderswhileonparole,andaparoledmurdererwhomurdersagain.Governmentdatashowthataboutonein12deathrowprisonershadapriorhomicideconviction.Butasthereisnowaytopredictreliablywhichconvictedmurdererswilltrytokillagain,theonlywaytopreventallsuchrecidivismistoexecuteeveryconvictedmurderer–apolicynooneseriouslyadvocates.Equallyeffectivebutfarlessinhumaneisapolicyoflifeimprisonmentwithoutthepossibilityofparole. CAPITALPUNISHMENTISUNFAIRConstitutionaldueprocessandelementaryjusticebothrequirethatthejudicialfunctionsoftrialandsentencingbeconductedwithfundamentalfairness,especiallywheretheirreversiblesanctionofthedeathpenaltyisinvolved.Inmurdercases(since1930,88percentofallexecutionshavebeenforthiscrime),therehasbeensubstantialevidencetoshowthatcourtshavesentencedsomepersonstoprisonwhileputtingotherstodeathinamannerthathasbeenarbitrary,raciallybiased,andunfair. RacialBiasinDeathSentencingRacialdiscriminationwasoneofthegroundsonwhichtheSupremeCourtruledthedeathpenaltyunconstitutionalinFurman.Halfacenturyago,inhisclassicAmericanDilemma(1944),GunnarMyrdalreportedthat"theSouthmakesthewidestapplicationofthedeathpenalty,andNegrocriminalscomeinformuchmorethantheirshareoftheexecutions."AstudyofthedeathpenaltyinTexasshowsthatthecurrentcapitalpunishmentsystemisanoutgrowthoftheracist"legacyofslavery."Between1930andtheendof1996,4,220prisonerswereexecutedintheUnitedStates;morethanhalf(53%)wereblack.Ournation'sdeathrowshavealwaysheldadisproportionatelylargepopulationofAfricanAmericans,relativetotheirpercentageofthetotalpopulation.Comparingblackandwhiteoffendersoverthepastcentury,theformerwereoftenexecutedforwhatwereconsideredless-than-capitaloffensesforwhites,suchasrapeandburglary.(Between1930and1976,455menwereexecutedforrape,ofwhom405–90percent–wereblack.)Ahigherpercentageoftheblackswhowereexecutedwerejuveniles;andtherateofexecutionwithouthavingone'sconvictionreviewedbyanyhighercourtwashigherforblacks.(Bowers,LegalHomicide1984;Streib,DeathPenaltyforJuveniles1987)Inrecentyears,ithasbeenarguedthatsuchflagrantracialdiscriminationisathingofthepast.However,sincetherevivalofthedeathpenaltyinthemid-1970s,abouthalfofthoseondeathrowatanygiventimehavebeenblack. Morestrikingistheracialcomparisonofvictims. Althoughapproximately49%ofallhomicidevictimsarewhite,77%ofcapitalhomicidecasessince1976haveinvolvedawhitevictim.Between1976and2005,86%ofwhitevictimswerekilledbywhites(14%byotherraces)while94%ofblackvictimswerekilledbyblacks(6%byotherraces). Blacksandwhitesaremurdervictimsinalmostequalnumbersofcrimes–whichisaveryhighpercentagegiventhatthegeneralUSpopulationis13%black.African-AmericansaresixtimesaslikelyaswhiteAmericanstodieatthehandsofamurderer,androughlyseventimesaslikelytomurdersomeone.Youngblackmenarefifteentimesaslikelytobemurderedasyoungwhitemen.Sogiventhisinformation,whenthoseunderdeathsentenceareexaminedmoreclosely,itturnsoutthatraceisadecisivefactorafterall. Further,studieslikethatcommissionedbytheGovernorofMarylandfoundthat“blackoffenderswhokillwhitevictimsareatgreaterriskofadeathsentencethanothers,primarilybecausetheyaresubstantiallymorelikelytobechargedbythestate’sattorneywithacapitaloffense.”TheclassicstatisticalstudyofracialdiscriminationincapitalcasesinGeorgiapresentedintheMcCleskeycaseshowedthat"theaverageoddsofreceivingadeathsentenceamongallindictedcaseswere4.3timeshigherincaseswithwhitevictims."(DavidC.Baldusetal.,EqualJusticeandtheDeathPenalty1990)  In1987thesedatawereplacedbeforetheSupremeCourtinMcCleskeyv.KempandwhiletheCourtdidnotdisputethestatisticalevidence,itheldthatevidenceofanoverallpatternofracialbiaswasnotsufficient.Mr.McCleskeywouldhavetoproveracialbiasinhisowncase–avirtuallyimpossibletask.TheCourtalsoheldthattheevidencefailedtoshowthattherewas"aconstitutionallysignificantriskofracialbias...."(481U.S.279)AlthoughtheSupremeCourtdeclaredthattheremedysoughtbytheplaintiffwas"bestpresentedtothelegislativebodies,"subsequenteffortstopersuadeCongresstoremedytheproblembyenactingtheRacialJusticeActwerenotsuccessful.(DonEdwards&JohnConyers,Jr.,TheRacialJusticeAct–ASimpleMatterofJustice,inUniversityofDaytonLawReview1995) In1990,theU.S.GeneralAccountingOfficereportedtotheCongresstheresultsofitsreviewofempiricalstudiesonracismandthedeathpenalty.TheGAOconcluded:"Oursynthesisofthe28studiesshowsapatternofevidenceindicatingracialdisparitiesinthecharging,sentencing,andimpositionofthedeathpenaltyaftertheFurmandecision"andthat"raceofvictiminfluencewasfoundatallstagesofthecriminaljusticesystemprocess..."TexaswaspreparedtoexecuteDuaneBuckonSeptember15,2011. Mr.BuckwascondemnedtodeathbyajurythathadbeentoldbyanexpertpsychologistthathewasmorelikelytobedangerousbecausehewasAfricanAmerican.  TheSupremeCourtstayedthecase,butMr.Buckhasnotyetreceivedthenewsentencinghearingjusticerequires.Theseresultscannotbeexplainedawaybyrelevantnon-racialfactors,suchaspriorcriminalrecordortypeofcrime,asthesewerefactoredforintheBaldusandGAOstudiesreferredtoabove. Theyleadtoaveryunsavoryconclusion:Inthetrialcourtsofthisnation,evenatthepresenttime,thekillingofawhitepersonistreatedmuchmoreseverelythanthekillingofablackperson.Ofthe313personsexecutedbetweenJanuary1977andtheendof1995,36hadbeenconvictedofkillingablackpersonwhile249(80%)hadkilledawhiteperson.Ofthe178whitedefendantsexecuted,onlythreehadbeenconvictedofmurderingpeopleofcolor.Ourcriminaljusticesystemessentiallyreservesthedeathpenaltyformurderers(regardlessoftheirrace)whokillwhitevictims.AnotherrecentLouisianastudyfoundthatdefendantswithwhitevictimswere97%morelikelytoreceivedeathsentencesthandefendantswithblackvictims.[1]Bothgenderandsocio-economicclassalsodeterminewhoreceivesadeathsentenceandwhoisexecuted. Womenaccountforonlytwopercentofallpeoplesentencedtodeath,eventhoughfemalescommitabout11percentofallcriminalhomicides.Manyofthewomenunderdeathsentencewereguiltyofkillingmenwhohadvictimizedthemwithyearsofviolentabuse.Since1900,only51womenhavebeenexecutedintheUnitedStates(15ofthemblack).Discriminationagainstthepoor(andinoursociety,racialminoritiesaredisproportionatelypoor)isalsowellestablished. Itisaprominentfactorintheavailabilityofcounsel. Fairnessincapitalcasesrequires,aboveall,competentcounselforthedefendant.Yet"approximately90percentofthoseondeathrowcouldnotaffordtohirealawyerwhentheyweretried.")Commoncharacteristicsofdeath-rowdefendantsarepoverty,thelackoffirmsocialrootsinthecommunity,andinadequatelegalrepresentationattrialoronappeal.AsJusticeWilliamO.DouglasnotedinFurman,"Onesearchesourchroniclesinvainfortheexecutionofanymemberoftheaffluentstratainthissociety"(408US238).FailureofSafeguardsThedemonstratedinequitiesintheactualadministrationofcapitalpunishmentshouldtipthebalanceagainstitinthejudgmentoffair-mindedandimpartialobservers."Whateverelsemightbesaidfortheuseofdeathasapunishment,onelessonisclearfromexperience:thisisapowerthatwecannotexercisefairlyandwithoutdiscrimination."(GrossandMauro,DeathandDiscrimination1989)JusticeJohnMarshallHarlan,writingfortheCourtinFurman,noted"…thehistoryofcapitalpunishmentforhomicides…revealscontinualefforts,uniformlyunsuccessful,toidentifybeforethefactthosehomicidesforwhichtheslayershoulddie….Thosewhohavecometogripswiththehardtaskofactuallyattemptingtodraftmeansofchannelingcapitalsentencingdiscretionhaveconfirmedthelessontaughtbyhistory….Toidentifybeforethefactthosecharacteristicsofcriminalhomicidesandtheirperpetratorswhichcallforthedeathpenalty,andtoexpressthesecharacteristicsinlanguagewhichcanbefairlyunderstoodandappliedbythesentencingauthority,appeartobetaskswhicharebeyondpresenthumanability."(402U.S.183(1971))YetintheGreggdecision,themajorityoftheSupremeCourtabandonedthewisdomofJusticeHarlanandruledasthoughthenewguided-discretionstatutescouldaccomplishtheimpossible.ThetruthisthatdeathstatutesapprovedbytheCourt"donoteffectivelyrestrictthediscretionofjuriesbyanyrealstandards,andtheyneverwill.Nosocietyisgoingtokilleverybodywhomeetscertainpresetverbalrequirements,putonthestatutebookswithoutawarenessofcoverageoftheinfinityofspecialfactorstherealworldcanproduce."EvidenceobtainedbytheCapitalJuryProjecthasshownthatjurorsincapitaltrialsgenerallydonotunderstandthejudge'sinstructionsaboutthelawsthatgovernthechoicebetweenimposingthedeathpenaltyandalifesentence.Evenwhentheydocomprehend,jurorsoftenrefusetobeguidedbythelaw."Jurorcomprehensionofthelaw…ismediocre.Theeffect[ofthisrelativelackofcomprehensionofthelaw]…istoreducethelikelihoodthatcapitaldefendantswillbenefitfromthesafeguardsagainstarbitrarinessbuiltintothe…law."Evenifthejury'ssentencingdecisionwerestrictlygovernedbytherelevantlegalcriteria,thereremainsavastreservoirofunfettereddiscretion:theprosecutor'sdecisiontoprosecuteforacapitalorlessercrime,thecourt'swillingnesstoacceptorrejectaguiltyplea,thejury'sdecisiontoconvictforsecond-degreemurderormanslaughterratherthancapitalmurder,thedeterminationofthedefendant'ssanity,andthegovernor'sfinalclemencydecision,amongothers.Discretioninthecriminaljusticesystemisunavoidable.ThehistoryofcapitalpunishmentinAmericaclearlydemonstratesthesocialdesiretomitigatetheharshnessofthedeathpenaltybynarrowingthescopeofitsapplication.Whetherornotexplicitlyauthorizedbystatutes,sentencingdiscretionhasbeenthemainvehicletothisend.Butwhensentencingdiscretionisused–asittoooftenhasbeen–todoomthepoor,thefriendless,theuneducated,racialminorities,andthedespised,itbecomesinjustice.Mindfulofsuchfacts,theHouseofDelegatesoftheAmericanBarAssociation(including20outof24formerpresidentsoftheABA)calledforamoratoriumonallexecutionsbyavoteof280to119inFebruary1997.TheHousejudgedthecurrentsystemtobe"ahaphazardmazeofunfairpractices."Inits1996surveyofthedeathpenaltyintheUnitedStates,theInternationalCommissionofJuristsreinforcedthispoint.DespitetheeffortsmadeoverthepasttwodecadessinceGreggtoprotecttheadministrationofthedeathpenaltyfromabuses,theactual"constitutionalerrorscommittedinstatecourtshavegravelyunderminedthelegitimacyofthedeathpenaltyasapunishmentforcrime."(InternationalCommissionofJurists,AdministrationoftheDeathPenaltyintheUnitedStates1996)In2009,theAmericanLawInstitute(ALI),theleadingindependentorganizationintheU.S.producingscholarlyworktoclarify,modernizeandimprovethelaw,removedcapitalpunishmentfromitsModelPenalCode.TheALI,whichcreatedthemodernlegalframeworkforthedeathpenaltyin1962,indicatedthatthepunishmentissoarbitrary,fraughtwithracialandeconomicdisparities,andunabletoassurequalitylegalrepresentationforindigentcapitaldefendants,thatitcanneverbeadministeredfairly.Thoughtfulcitizens,whomightpossiblysupporttheabstractnotionofcapitalpunishment,areobligedtocondemnitinactualpractice. CAPITALPUNISHMENTISIRREVERSIBLEUnlikeanyothercriminalpunishments,thedeathpenaltyisirrevocable.SpeakingtotheFrenchChamberofDeputiesin1830,yearsafterhavingwitnessedtheexcessesoftheFrenchRevolution,theMarquisdeLafayettesaid,"IshallaskfortheabolitionofthepunishmentofdeathuntilIhavetheinfallibilityofhumanjudgmentdemonstratedtome."Althoughsomeproponentsofcapitalpunishmentwouldarguethatitsmeritsareworththeoccasionalexecutionofinnocentpeople,mostwouldhastentoinsistthatthereislittlelikelihoodoftheinnocentbeingexecuted.Since1900,inthiscountry,therehavebeenontheaveragemorethanfourcaseseachyearinwhichanentirelyinnocentpersonwasconvictedofmurder.Scoresoftheseindividualsweresentencedtodeath.Inmanycases,areprieveorcommutationarrivedjusthours,orevenminutes,beforethescheduledexecution.Theseerroneousconvictionshaveoccurredinvirtuallyeveryjurisdictionfromoneendofthenationtotheother.Norhavetheydeclinedinrecentyears,despitethenewdeathpenaltystatutesapprovedbytheSupremeCourt.Disturbingly,andincreasingly,alargebodyofevidencefromthemodernerashowsthatinnocentpeopleareoftenconvictedofcrimes–includingcapitalcrimes–andthatsomehavebeenexecuted.In2012,anewreportintheColumbiaHumanRightsLawReviewchronicledthehorrifyingcaseofCarlosDeLuna,amanexecutedinTexasin1989foramurderthatitwas“commonknowledge”hadbeencommittedbyanotherman.[2]DeLuna’sstorydemonstratessomanyofthefactorsthatcangowronginacapitalcase:faultyeyewitnessidentification,prosecutorialmisconduct,policemisconduct,abotchedcrimescene,destroyedDNAevidence,apoorpersonrepresentedbyineffectivebyanineffectiveinexperienceddefenseattorneyovermatchedbyaprofessionalprosecutor,andinsufficientoversightfromthebench.[3] InitscaseagainstDeLuna,theStatepresentednobloodorDNAevidence,nocrimescenefingerprints,andnoproofofhairorfibersfromthevictimhavingbeenfoundonthedefendant.Hewasconvictedlargelybasedoneyewitnesstestimonymadefromthebackofapolicecarinadimlylitlotnearthecrimescene.Meanwhile,aviolentcriminalnamedCarlosHernandez—amanwhonotonlysharedDeLuna’sname,butalsolookedlikehim—repeatedlyboastedabouthowhehadcommittedthemurderandgottenawaywithit.[4] ThesedisturbingfactsaboutDeLuna’scase,broughttolightmorethantwodecadesafterhisexecution,refutetheclaim,madebysomeproponentsofcapitalpunishment,thattheUnitedStateshasneverexecutedaninnocentperson.[5]Considerthisadditionalhandfulofcasesofinnocentpeoplesentencedtodie–someexecutedandsomespared:In2011,thestateofGeorgiaexecutedTroyDavis,aBlackmanwhowasalmostcertainlyinnocentofthemurderofawhiteoff-dutypoliceofficer. Thecircumstancesofhisexecutionraisedaninternationaloutcry,forgoodreason. Daviswasconvictedbasedoneyewitnesstestimony,sincetherewasnomurderweaponorphysicalevidencepresentedbytheprosecution.Sevenofthenineeyewitnessesrecantedorcontradictedtheirtrialtestimony,manyofthemsayingtheywerepressuredorthreatenedbypoliceatthetime. TroyDaviscameclosetoexecutionthreeprevioustimes,becauseofthedifficultyofgettinganycourttolistentonewevidencecastingdoubtonhisconviction.  Afterpassageofafederallawin1996,petitionersareverylimitedintheirabilitytoappealdeathsentences,andcourtsroutinelyrefusetohearnewtestimony,evenevidenceofinnocence. WhenTroyDavisfinallydidgetahearingonhisevidence,thejudgerequired“proofofinnocence”–animpossiblyhighstandardwhichheruledthatMr.Davisdidnotmeet.Despitetheoverwhelmingcallforclemency,supposedtobethe“fail-safe”ofthedeathpenaltysystem,theGeorgiaBoardofPardonsrefusedtocommutethesentencetolifeandMr.Daviswasexecuted. OnlyonedayafterTroyDaviswasexecuted,twomenwerefreedbythespecialInnocenceCommissionofNorthCarolinaafteradecadeapieceinprison. Thetwomenhadactuallypledguiltytoacrimetheydidnotcommit,becausetheywerethreatenedwiththedeathpenalty.InTexasin2004,CameronToddWillinghamwasexecutedforthearson-murderofhisthreechildren.Independentinvestigationsbyanewspaper,anonprofitorganizationusingtopexpertsinthefieldoffirescience,andanindependentexperthiredbytheStateofTexasallfoundthataccident,notarsonwasthecauseofthefire.  Theresimplywasnoreliableevidencethatthechildrenweremurdered. Yetevenwiththesereportsinhand,thestateofTexasexecutedMr.Willingham. Earlierthisyear,theTexasForensicScienceCommissionwaspoisedtoissueareportofficiallyconfirmingtheseconclusionsuntilTexasGovernorRickPerryreplacedtheCommission’schairandsomeofitsmembers.CameronToddWillingham,whoclaimedinnocenceallalong,wasexecutedforacrimehealmostcertainlydidnotcommit. Asanexampleofthearbitrarinessofthedeathpenalty,anotherman,ErnestWillis,alsoconvictedofarson-murderonthesamesortofflimsyandunscientifictestimony,wasfreedfromTexasdeathrowsixmonthsafterWillinghamwasexecuted.In1985,inMaryland,KirkBloodsworthwassentencedtodeathforrapeandmurder,despitethetestimonyofalibiwitnesses.In1986hisconvictionwasreversedongroundsofwithheldevidencepointingtoanothersuspect;hewasretried,re-convicted,andsentencedtolifeinprison.In1993,newlyavailableDNAevidenceprovedhewasnottherapist-killer,andhewasreleasedaftertheprosecutiondismissedthecase.Ayearlaterhewasawarded$300,000forwrongfulpunishment.YearslatertheDNAwasmatchedtotherealkiller.InMississippi,in1990,SabrinaButlerwassentencedtodeathforkillingherbabyboy.Sheclaimedthechilddiedafterattemptsatresuscitationfailed.Ontechnicalgroundsherconvictionwasreversedin1992.Atretrial,shewasacquittedwhenaneighborcorroboratedButler'sexplanationofthechild'scauseofdeathandthephysicianwhoperformedtheautopsyadmittedhisworkhadnotbeenthorough.In1990,JesseTaferowasexecutedinFlorida.Hehadbeenconvictedin1976alongwithhiswife,SoniaJacobs,formurderingastatetrooper.In1981Jacobs'deathsentencewasreducedonappealtolifeimprisonment,and11yearslaterherconvictionwasvacatedbyafederalcourt.TheevidenceonwhichTaferoandJacobshadbeenconvictedandsentencedwasidentical;itconsistedmainlyoftheperjuredtestimonyofanex-convictwhoturnedstate'switnessinordertoavoidadeathsentence.HadTaferobeenalivein1992,henodoubtwouldhavebeenreleasedalongwithJacobs. Tafero’sexecutionwenthorriblywrong,andhisheadcaughtonfireduringtheelectrocution.InAlabama,WalterMcMillianwasconvictedofmurderingawhitewomanin1988.Despitethejury'srecommendationofalifesentence,thejudgesentencedhimtodeath.ThesoleevidenceleadingthepolicetoarrestMcMillianwastestimonyofanex-convictseekingfavorwiththeprosecution.Adozenalibiwitnesses(allAfricanAmericans,likeMcMillian)testifiedonMcMillian'sbehalfthattheyweretogetherataneighborhoodgathering,tonoavail.Onappeal,aftertirelesseffortsbyhisattorneyBryanStevenson,McMillian'sconvictionwasreversedbytheAlabamaCourtofAppeals.Stevensonuncoveredprosecutorialsuppressionofexculpatoryevidenceandperjurybyprosecutionwitnesses,andthenewdistrictattorneyjoinedthedefenseinseekingdismissalofthecharges.In1985,inIllinois,RolandoCruzandAlejandroHernandezwereconvictedofabduction,rape,andmurderofayounggirlandweresentencedtodeath.Shortlyafter,anothermanservingalifeterminprisonforsimilarcrimesconfessedthathealonewasguilty;buthisconfessionwasinadmissiblebecauseherefusedtorepeatitincourtunlessthestatewaivedthedeathpenaltyagainsthim.Awardedanewtrialin1988,Cruzwasagainconvictedandsentencedtodeath;Hernandezwasalsore-convicted,andsentencedto80yearsinprison.In1992theassistantattorneygeneralassignedtoprosecutethecaseonappealresignedafterbecomingconvincedofthedefendants'innocence.TheconvictionswereagainoverturnedonappealafterDNAtestsexoneratedCruzandimplicatedtheprisonerwhohadearlierconfessed.In1995thecourtorderedadirectedverdictofacquittal,andsharplycriticizedthepolicefortheirunprofessionalhandlingofthecase.Hernandezwasreleasedonbailandtheprosecutiondroppedallcharges.In1980inTexasablackhighschooljanitor,ClarenceBrandley,andhiswhiteco-workerfoundthebodyofamissing16-year-oldwhiteschoolgirl.Interrogatedbythepolice,theyweretold,"Oneofyoutwoisgoingtohangforthis."LookingatBrandley,theofficersaid,"Sinceyou'rethenigger,you'reelected."Inaclassiccaseofrushtojudgment,Brandleywastried,convicted,andsentencedtodeath.Thecircumstantialevidenceagainsthimwasthin,otherleadswereignoredbythepolice,andthecourtroomatmospherereekedofracism.In1986,CenturionMinistries–avolunteergroupdevotedtofreeingwronglyconvictedprisoners–cametoBrandley'said.EvidencehadmeanwhileemergedthatanothermanhadcommittedthemurderforwhichBrandleywasawaitingexecution.Brandleywasnotreleaseduntil1990.(Davies,WhiteLies1991)Thissampleoffreakishandarbitraryinnocencedeterminationsalsospeaksdirectlytotheunceasingconcernthattherearemanymoreinnocentpeopleondeathrowsacrossthecountry–aswellaswhohavebeenexecuted. Severalfactorsseenintheabovesampleofcaseshelpexplainwhythejudicialsystemcannotguaranteethatjusticewillnevermiscarry:overzealousprosecution,mistakenorperjuredtestimony,race,faultypolicework,coercedconfessions,thedefendant'spreviouscriminalrecord,ineptandunder-resourceddefensecounsel,seeminglyconclusivecircumstantialevidence,andcommunitypressureforaconviction,amongothers.Andwhenthesystemdoesgowrong,itisoftenvolunteersfromoutsidethecriminaljusticesystem–journalists,forexample–whorectifytheerrors,notthepoliceorprosecutors.Toretainthedeathpenaltyinthefaceofthedemonstrablefailuresofthesystemisunacceptable,especiallysincetherearenostrongoverridingreasonstofavorthedeathpenalty. CAPITALPUNISHMENTISBARBARICPrisonersareexecutedintheUnitedStatesbyanyoneoffivemethods;inafewjurisdictionstheprisonerisallowedtochoosewhichoneheorsheprefers:Thetraditionalmodeofexecution,hanging,isanoptionstillavailableinDelaware,NewHampshireandWashington.Deathonthegallowsiseasilybungled:Ifthedropistooshort,therewillbeaslowandagonizingdeathbystrangulation.Ifthedropistoolong,theheadwillbetornoff. Twostates,IdahoandUtah,stillauthorizethefiringsquad.Theprisonerisstrappedintoachairandhooded.Atargetispinnedtothechest.Fivemarksmen,onewithblanks,takeaimandfire.Throughoutthetwentiethcentury,electrocutionhasbeenthemostwidelyusedformofexecutioninthiscountry,andisstillutilizedinelevenstates,althoughlethalinjectionistheprimarymethodofexecution.Thecondemnedprisonerisled–ordragged–intothedeathchamber,strappedintothechair,andelectrodesarefastenedtoheadandlegs.Whentheswitchisthrownthebodystrains,joltingasthevoltageisraisedandlowered.Oftensmokerisesfromthehead.Thereistheawfulodorofburningflesh.Nooneknowshowlongelectrocutedindividualsretainconsciousness.In1983,theelectrocutionofJohnEvansinAlabamawasdescribedbyaneyewitnessasfollows:"At8:30p.m.thefirstjoltof1900voltsofelectricitypassedthroughMr.Evans'body.It lastedthirtyseconds.Sparksandflameserupted…fromtheelectrodetiedtoMr.Evans'leftleg.Hisbodyslammedagainstthestrapsholdinghimintheelectricchairandhisfistclenchedpermanently.Theelectrodeapparentlyburstfromthestrapholdingitinplace.AlargepuffofgrayishsmokeandsparkspouredoutfromunderthehoodthatcoveredMr.Evans'face.Anoverpoweringstenchofburntfleshandclothingbeganpervadingthewitnessroom.TwodoctorsexaminedMr.Evansanddeclaredthathewasnotdead."Theelectrodeontheleftlegwasre-fastened.…Mr.Evanswasadministeredasecondthirtysecondjoltofelectricity.Thestenchofburningfleshwasnauseating.Moresmokeemanatedfromhislegandhead.Again,thedoctorsexaminedMr.Evans.[They]reportedthathisheartwasstillbeating,andthathewasstillalive.Atthattime,Iaskedtheprisoncommissioner,whowascommunicatingonanopentelephonelinetoGovernorGeorgeWallace,tograntclemencyonthegroundsthatMr.Evanswasbeingsubjectedtocruelandunusualpunishment.Therequest…wasdenied."At8:40p.m.,athirdchargeofelectricity,thirtysecondsinduration,waspassedthroughMr.Evans'body.At8:44,thedoctorspronouncedhimdead.TheexecutionofJohnEvanstookfourteenminutes."Afterwards,officialswereembarrassedbywhatoneobservercalledthe"barbaricritual."Theprisonspokesmanremarked,"Thiswassupposedtobeaverycleanmannerofadministeringdeath."Theintroductionofthegaschamberwasanattempttoimproveonelectrocution.Inthismethodofexecutiontheprisonerisstrappedintoachairwithacontainerofsulfuricacidunderneath.Thechamberissealed,andcyanideisdroppedintotheacidtoformalethalgas.Executionbysuffocationinthelethalgaschamberhasnotbeenabolishedbutlethalinjectionservesastheprimarymethodinstateswhichstillauthorizeit.In1996apanelofjudgesonthe9thCircuitCourtofAppealsinCalifornia(wherethegaschamberhasbeenusedsince1933)ruledthatthismethodisa"cruelandunusualpunishment."Hereisanaccountofthe1992executioninArizonaofDonHarding,asreportedinthedissentbyU.S.SupremeCourtJusticeJohnPaulStevens:"WhenthefumesenvelopedDon'sheadhetookaquickbreath.Afewsecondslaterheagainlookedinmydirection.Hisfacewasredandcontortedasifhewereattemptingtofightthroughtremendouspain.Hismouthwaspursedshutandhisjawwasclenchedtight.Donthentookseveralmorequickgulpsofthefumes."AtthispointDon'sbodystartedconvulsingviolently....HisfaceandbodyturnedadeepredandtheveinsinhistempleandneckbegantobulgeuntilIthoughttheymightexplode.AfteraboutaminuteDon'sfaceleanedpartiallyforward,buthewasstillconscious.Everyfewsecondshecontinuedtogulpin.Hewasshudderinguncontrollablyandhisbodywasrackedwithspasms.Hisheadcontinuedtosnapback.Hishandswereclenched."Afterseveralmoreminutes,themostviolentoftheconvulsionssubsided.AtthistimethemusclesalongDon'sleftarmandbackbegantwitchinginawavelikemotionunderhisskin.Spittledrooledfromhismouth."Dondidnotstopmovingforapproximatelyeightminutes,andafterthathecontinuedtotwitchandjerkforanotherminute.Approximatelytwominuteslater,weweretoldbyaprisonofficialthattheexecutionwascomplete.“DonHardingtooktenminutesandthirtyonesecondstodie."(Gomezv.U.S.DistrictCourt,112S.Ct.1652)Thelatestmodeofinflictingthedeathpenalty,enactedintolawbymorethan30states,islethalinjection,firstusedin1982inTexas.Itiseasytooverstatethehumanenessandefficacyofthismethod;onecannotknowwhetherlethalinjectionisreallypainlessandthereisevidencethatitisnot.AstheU.S.CourtofAppealsobserved,thereis"substantialanduncontrovertedevidence…thatexecutionbylethalinjectionposesaseriousriskofcruel,protracteddeath….Evenaslighterrorindosageoradministrationcanleaveaprisonerconsciousbutparalyzedwhiledying,asentientwitnessofhisorherownasphyxiation."(Chaneyv.Heckler,718F.2d1174,1983).Itsveneerofdecencyandsubtleanalogywithlife-savingmedicalpracticenodoubtmakeskillingbylethalinjectionmoreacceptabletothepublic.JournalistSusanBlaustein,reactingtohavingwitnessedanexecutioninTexas,comments:"Thelethalinjectionmethod…hasturneddyingintoastilllife,therebyenablingthestatetokillwithoutanyoneinvolvedfeelinganything….Anyremainingglimmersofdoubt–aboutwhetherthemanreceiveddueprocess,abouthisguilt,aboutourrighttotakelife–causeustorationalizethesedeathswithsuchcatchwordsas‘heinous,’‘deserved,’‘deterrent,’‘justice,’and‘painless.’Wehaveperfectedtheartofinstitutionalkillingtothedegreethatithasdeadenedournatural,quintessentiallyhumanresponsetodeath."BotchedLethalInjectionsNordoesexecutionbylethalinjectionalwaysproceedsmoothlyasplanned.In1985"theauthoritiesrepeatedlyjabbedneedlesinto…StephenMorin,whentheyhadtroublefindingausableveinbecausehehadbeenadrugabuser."In1988,duringtheexecutionofRaymondLandry,"atubeattachedtoaneedleinsidetheinmate'srightarmbeganleaking,sendingthelethalmixtureshootingacrossthedeathchambertowardwitnesses."AlthoughtheU.S.SupremeCourthasheldthatthecurrentmethodoflethalinjectionusedisconstitutional,severalpeoplehavesufferedbecauseofthisformofexecution.InOhio,RommelBroomwassubjectedto18attemptsatfindingaveinsothathecouldbekilledbylethalinjection.Theprocesstotrytoexecutehimtookovertwohours.Finally,thegovernorhadtostoptheexecutionandgranttheinmateaoneweekreprieve.Mr.Broomhasnotbeenexecutedbecauseheischallengingthestate’srighttoholdasecondexecutionattempt. NorwashetheonlyOhioinmatesomaltreated. Duringhis2006executionJosephClarkscreamed,“itdon’twork”andrequestedtotakesomethingbymouthsothetorturewouldendwhenhisexecutionerstookthirtyminutestofindavein.ChristopherNewton’sexecutiontookovertwohours–solongthathehadtobegivenabathroombreak.LethalInjectionProtocolIssuesMostlethalinjectionsintheUnitedStatesusea“cocktail”consistingofthreedrugsthatsequentiallyrenderaninmateunconscious,causeparalysisandceasebreathing,andstopaninmate’sheart.[6] Butin2011,thesoleAmericanmanufacturerofsodiumthiopental,avitalpartofthethree-drugcocktail,decidedtodiscontinueproduction,forcingstatestoadapttheirlethalinjectionmethodology.[7] Somestateshavereplacedthethree-drugcocktailwithasinglesubstance,[8]whileothershavereplacedthiopentalinthethree-drugsequencewithanotheranesthetic.[9] Boththree-drugandsingle-drugexecutionsraisevitalconcerns:thethree-drugcocktail’sparalyzingsedativemaymasktheinmate’spainandsuffering,whilethesingle-drugmethodtakesabout25minutestoendalife(iftherearenocomplications),comparedwiththeten-minutethree-drugprocess.[10]AlthoughtheSupremeCourtheldin2008thatKentucky’sthree-druglethalinjectionproceduredidnotviolatetheConstitution’sbanoncruelandunusualpunishment,[11]itisunclearwhetherstates’adaptedprocedurespassmuster. Indeed,inFebruary2012,athree-judgepaneloftheNinthCircuitCourtofAppealsadmonishedtheArizonaDepartmentofCorrections,statingthatitsapproachtoexecution“cannotcontinue”andquestioningthe“regularityandreliability”ofprotocolsthatgivecompletediscretiontothecorrectionsdirectortodeterminewhichandhowmanydrugswillbeusedforeachexecution.[12] InGeorgia,thestateSupremeCourtstayedtheexecutionofWarrenHillhoursbeforehewasscheduledtodieinJuly2012inordertoreviewtheDepartmentofCorrections’newsingle-druglethalinjectionprocedure.[13] TheMissouriSupremeCourtimposedatemporarymoratoriumonexecutionsinAugust2012,declaringthatitwouldbe“premature”tosetexecutiondatesfordeathrowinmatesgivenapendinglawsuitaboutwhetherthestate’slethalinjectionproceduresarehumane. Thestatehadamendeditsinjectionprotocoltouseasingledrug,propofol,whichadvocatessaycausesseverepainuponinjection.[14]Althoughsimilarsuitsarependinginotherstates,[15]notallprotocol-basedchallengeshavesucceeded;inTexasandOklahoma,executionshavecontinueddespitequestionsaboutthepotentialcrueltyoflethalinjectionandthetypeornumberofchemicalsused.[16]Regardlessofwhetherstatesuseoneorthreedrugsforanexecution,allofthemajorlethalinjectiondrugsareinshortsupplyduetomanufacturers’effortstopreventtheuseoftheirproductsforexecutions[17]andEuropeanUnionrestrictionsontheexportationofdrugsthatmaybeusedtokill.[18] Asaresult,somestateexecutionershavepursuedquestionablemeansofobtainingthedeadlychemicalsfromotherstatesandforeigncompanies,includingapharmaceuticalwholesaleroperatingoutofthebackofaLondondrivingschool.[19]Thesebackroomdeals—which,astoundingly,havebeenapprovedbytheU.S.FoodandDrugAdministration(FDA)—arenowthesubjectoffederallitigationthatcouldimpactthelegitimacyoftheAmericandeathpenaltysystem. InMarch2012,sixdeathrowinmatesarguedthattheFDAhadshirkeditsdutytoregulatelethalsubstancesandraisedconcernsaboutthe“veryrealriskthatunapprovedthiopentalwillnotactuallyrenderacondemnedprisonerunconscious.”[20] AfederaldistrictjudgeagreedandorderedtheFDAtoconfiscatetheimportedthiopental,buttheagencyhasappealed.[21]WitnessingtheExecutionMostpeoplewhohaveobservedanexecutionarehorrifiedanddisgusted."Iwasashamed,"writessociologistRichardMoran,whowitnessedanexecutioninTexasin1985."Iwasanintruder,theonlymemberofthepublicwhohadtrespassedon[thecondemnedman's]privatemomentofanguish.Inmyfacehecouldseethehorrorofhisowndeath."Revulsionatthedutytosuperviseandwitnessexecutionsisonereasonwhysomanyprisonwardens–howeverunsentimentaltheyareaboutcrimeandcriminals–areopponentsofcapitalpunishment.DonCabana,whosupervisedseveralexecutionsinMissouriandMississippireflectsonhismoodjustpriortowitnessinganexecutioninthegaschamber:"If[thecondemnedprisoner]wassomeawfulmonsterdeemedworthyofextermination,whydidIfeelsobadaboutit,Iwondered.Ithasbeensaidthatmenondeathrowareinhuman,cold-bloodedkillers.ButasIstoodandwatchedagrievingmotherleavehersonforthelasttime,Iquestionedhowthesordidbusinessofexecutionswassupposedtobethegreatequalizer….The'lastmile'seemedaneternity,everystepapainfulreminderofwhatwaitedattheendofthewalk.Wherewasthecold-bloodedmurderer,Iwondered,asweapproachedthedoortothelast-nightcell.Ihadlookedforthatmanbefore…andIstillhadnotfoundhim–Isaw,inmygrasp,onlyafrightenedchild.[Minutesaftertheexecutionandbefore]headingfortheconferenceroomandawaitingpresscorps,I…shookmyhead.'Nomore.Idon'twanttodothisanymore.'"1996)Recently,AllenAult,formerexecutionerfortheStateofGeorgia,wrote,“Themenandwomenwhoassistinexecutionsarenotpsychopathsorsadists.Theydotheirbesttoperformtheimpossibleandinhumanejobwithwhichthestatehaschargedthem.Thoseofuswhohaveparticipatedinexecutionsoftensuffersomethingverymuchlikeposttraumaticstress.Manyturntoalcoholanddrugs.Forme,thosenightsthatweren’tsleeplesswereplaguedbynightmares.”Forsomeindividuals,however,executionsseemtoappealtostrange,aberrantimpulsesandprovideanoutletforsadisticurges.WardenLewisLawesofSingSingPrisoninNewYorkwroteofthemanyrequestshereceivedtowatchelectrocutions,andtoldthatwhenthejobofexecutionerbecamevacant."Ireceivedmorethansevenhundredapplicationsfortheposition,manyofthemofferingcut-rateprices."(LifeandDeathinSingSing1928)Publicexecutionswerecommoninthiscountryduringthe19thandearly20thcenturies.Oneofthelastonesoccurredin1936inKentucky,when20,000peoplegatheredtowatchthehangingofayoungAfricanAmericanmale.(Teeters,inJournaloftheLancasterCountyHistoricalSociety1960)Delightinbrutality,pain,violenceanddeathmayalwaysbewithus.Butsurelywemustconcludethatitisbestforthelawnottoencouragesuchimpulses.Whenthegovernmentsanctions,commands,andceremoniouslycarriesouttheexecutionofaprisoner,itlendssupporttothisdestructivesideofhumannature.MorethantwocenturiesagotheItalianjuristCesareBeccaria,inhishighlyinfluentialtreatiseOnCrimesandPunishment(1764),asserted:"Thedeathpenaltycannotbeuseful,becauseoftheexampleofbarbarityitgivesmen."Beccaria'swordsstillringtrue–evenifthedeathpenaltywerea"useful"deterrent,itwouldstillbean"exampleofbarbarity."Nosocietycansafelyentrusttheenforcementofitslawstotorture,brutality,orkilling.Suchmethodsareinherentlycruelandwillalwaysmocktheattempttocloaktheminjustice.AsSupremeCourtJusticeArthurJ.Goldbergwrote,"Thedeliberateinstitutionalizedtakingofhumanlifebythestateisthegreatestconceivabledegradationtothedignityofthehumanpersonality."(BostonGlobe,August16,1976)DeathRowSyndromeCapitalappealsarenotonlycostly;theyarealsotime-consuming. Theaveragedeathrowinmatewaits12yearsbetweensentencingandexecution,andsomesitinanticipationoftheirexecutionsondeathrowforupto30years.[22] Fortheseprisoners,mostofwhomarehousedinsolitaryconfinement,thiswaitperiodmaycause“DeathRowPhenomenon”or“DeathRowSyndrome.” Althoughthetermsareoftenusedinterchangeably,“DeathRowPhenomenon”referstothedestructiveconsequencesoflong-termsolitaryconfinement[23]andtheinevitableanxietythatresultsfromawaitingone’sowndeath,while“DeathRowSyndrome”referstotheseverepsychologicalillnessthatoftenresultsfromDeathRowPhenomenon.[24]Insolitaryconfinement,inmatesareoftenisolatedfor23hourseachdaywithoutaccesstotrainingoreducationalprograms,recreationalactivities,orregularvisits. Suchconditionshavebeendemonstratedtoprovokeagitation,psychosis,delusions,paranoia,andself-destructivebehavior.[25] Toinflictthistypeofmentalharmisinhumane,butitalsomayprovedetrimentaltopublicsafety. Whendeathrowinmatessuccessfullyappealtheirsentences,theyaretransferredintothegeneralinmatepopulation,andwhendeathrowinmatesareexonerated,theyarepromptlyreleasedintothecommunity.[26] DeathRowSyndromeneedlesslyrisksmakingtheseindividualsdangeroustothosearoundthem. NeitherDeathRowSyndromenorDeathRowPhenomenonhasreceivedformalrecognitionfromtheAmericanPsychiatricAssociationortheAmericanPsychologicalAssociation.[27] In1995,however,JusticesStevensandBreyer,inamemorandumregardingtheSupremeCourt’sdenialofcertioraritodeathrowinmateClarenceLackey,highlightedthe“importanceandnovelty”ofthequestion“whetherexecutingaprisonerwhohasalreadyspentsome17yearsondeathrowviolatestheEighthAmendment’sprohibitionagainstcruelandunusualpunishment.”[28] Further,assomescholarsandadvocateshavenoted,thementaldeteriorationsymptomaticofDeathRowSyndromemayrenderaninmateincompetenttoparticipateintheirownpost-convictionproceedings.[29]DeathRowSyndromegainedinternationalrecognitionduringthe1989extraditionproceedingsofJensSoering,aGermancitizenarrestedinEnglandandchargedwithcommittingmurderonAmericansoil.[30] Soeringargued,andtheEuropeanCourtofHumanRightsagreed,thatextraditinghimtotheUnitedStateswouldviolateArticle3oftheEuropeanConventionfortheProtectionofHumanRightsandFundamentalFreedoms.[31] TheCourtexplainedthat,intheUnitedStates,“thecondemnedprisonerhastoendureformanyyearstheconditionsondeathrowandtheanguishandmountingtensionoflivingintheever-presentshadowofdeath”suchthatextraditingSoeringwouldviolateprotectionsagainst“inhumanordegradingtreatmentorpunishment.”[32] SimilarconclusionshavebeenreachedbytheUnitedKingdom’sJudicialCommitteeofthePrivyCouncil,theUnitedNationsHumanRightsCommittee,andtheCanadianSupremeCourt.[33] CAPITALPUNISHMENTISUNJUSTIFIEDRETRIBUTIONJustice,itisofteninsisted,requiresthedeathpenaltyastheonlysuitableretributionforheinouscrimes.Thisclaimdoesnotbearscrutiny,however.Byitsnature,allpunishmentisretributive.Therefore,whateverlegitimacyistobefoundinpunishmentasjustretributioncan,inprinciple,besatisfiedwithoutrecoursetoexecutions.Moreover,thedeathpenaltycouldbedefendedonnarrowlyretributivegroundsonlyforthecrimeofmurder,andnotforanyofthemanyothercrimesthathavefrequentlybeenmadesubjecttothismodeofpunishment(rape,kidnapping,espionage,treason,drugtrafficking).Fewdefendersofthedeathpenaltyarewillingtoconfinethemselvesconsistentlytothenarrowscopeaffordedbyretribution.Inanycase,executionismorethanapunishmentexactedinretributionforthetakingofalife.AsNobelLaureateAlbertCamuswrote,"Fortheretobeequivalence,thedeathpenaltywouldhavetopunishacriminalwhohadwarnedhisvictimofthedateatwhichhewouldinflictahorribledeathonhimandwho,fromthatmomentonward,hadconfinedhimathismercyformonths.Suchamonsterisnotencounteredinprivatelife."(ReflectionsontheGuillotine,inResistance,Rebellion,andDeath1960)Itisalsooftenarguedthatdeathiswhatmurderersdeserve,andthatthosewhoopposethedeathpenaltyviolatethefundamentalprinciplethatcriminalsshouldbepunishedaccordingtotheirjustdesserts–"makingthepunishmentfitthecrime."Ifthisrulemeanspunishmentsareunjustunlesstheyarelikethecrimeitself,thentheprincipleisunacceptable:Itwouldrequireustoraperapists,torturetorturers,andinflictotherhorribleanddegradingpunishmentsonoffenders.Itwouldrequireustobetraytraitorsandkillmultiplemurderersagainandagain–punishmentsthatare,ofcourse,impossibletoinflict.Sincewecannotreasonablyaimtopunishallcrimesaccordingtothisprinciple,itisarbitrarytoinvokeitasarequirementofjusticeinthepunishmentofmurder.If,however,theprincipleofjustdesertsmeanstheseverityofpunishmentsmustbeproportionaltothegravityofthecrime–andsincemurderisthegravestcrime,itdeservestheseverestpunishment–thentheprincipleisnodoubtsound.Nevertheless,thispremisedoesnotcompelsupportforthedeathpenalty;whatitdoesrequireisthatothercrimesbepunishedwithtermsofimprisonmentorotherdeprivationslessseverethanthoseusedinthepunishmentofmurder.Criminalsnodoubtdeservetobepunished,andtheseverityofthepunishmentshouldbeappropriatetotheirculpabilityandtheharmtheyhavecausedtheinnocent.Butseverityofpunishmenthasitslimits–imposedbybothjusticeandourcommonhumandignity.Governmentsthatrespecttheselimitsdonotusepremeditated,violenthomicideasaninstrumentofsocialpolicy.MurderVictimsFamiliesOpposetheDeathPenaltySomepeoplewhohavelostalovedonetomurderbelievethattheycannotrestuntilthemurdererisexecuted.Butthissentimentisbynomeansuniversal.CorettaScottKinghasobserved,"Asonewhosehusbandandmother-in-lawhavediedthevictimsofmurderandassassination,Istandfirmlyandunequivocallyopposedtothedeathpenaltyforthoseconvictedofcapitaloffenses.Anevildeedisnotredeemedbyanevildeedofretaliation.Justiceisneveradvancedinthetakingofahumanlife.Moralityisneverupheldbyalegalizedmurder."(SpeechtoNationalCoalitiontoAbolishtheDeathPenalty,Washington,D.C.,September26,1981)KerryKennedyCuomo,daughteroftheslainSenatorRobertKennedy,haswritten:"Iwaseightyearsoldwhenmyfatherwasmurdered.Itisalmostimpossibletodescribethepainoflosingaparenttoasenselessmurder.…Butevenasachildonethingwascleartome:Ididn'twantthekiller,inturn,tobekilled.Irememberlyinginbedandpraying,'Please,God.Pleasedon'ttakehislifetoo.'Isawnothingthatcouldbeaccomplishedinthelossofonelifebeingansweredwiththelossofanother.AndIknew,fartoovividly,theanguishthatwouldspreadthroughanotherfamily–anothersetofparents,children,brothers,andsistersthrownintogrief."(ForewordtoGrayandStanley,APunishmentinSearchofACrime1989)Acrossthenation,manywhohavesurvivedthemurderofalovedonehavejoinedMurderVictims'FamiliesforReconciliationorMurderVictimsFamiliesforHumanRights,intheefforttoreplaceangerandhatetowardthecriminalwitharestorativeapproachtoboththeoffenderandthebereavedsurvivors.GroupsofmurdervictimsfamilymembershavesupportedcampaignsforabolitionofthedeathpenaltyinIllinois,Connecticut,MontanaandMarylandmostrecently.BarbaraAndersonYoung,thesisterofJamesAnderson,whowasallegedlyrunoverbyawhiteteenagerinMississippiin2011,whoreportedlywantedtohurthimbecausehewasBlack,wrotealettertothelocalprosecutoronbehalfoftheirfamilyindicatingthefamily’soppositiontothedeathpenalty,whichis“deeplyrootedinourreligiousfaith,afaiththatwascentralinJames’lifeaswell.” Theletteralsoeloquentlyasksthatthedefendantbesparedexecutionbecausethedeathpenalty“historicallyhasbeenusedinMississippiandtheSouthprimarilyagainstpeopleofcolorforkillingwhites.” Itcontinues,“[e]xecutingJames'killerswillnothelpbalancethescales.Butsparingthemmayhelptosparkadialoguethatonedaywillleadtotheeliminationofcapitalpunishment."LawrenceBrewer,convictedofthenotoriousdraggingdeathofJamesByrdinTexas,wasexecutedin2011. MembersofMr.Byrd’sfamilyopposedthedeathpenalty,despitetheracistandviciousnatureofthekilling. OfBrewer’sremorseless–hesaidhehadnoregretsthedayhewasexecuted–Byrd’ssister,BettyBoatner,said,“IfIcouldsaysomethingtohim,IwouldlethimknowthatIforgivehimandthenifhestillhasnoremorse,Ijustfeelsorryforhim.” Byrd’sdaughtersharedthatshedidn’twantBrewertodiebecause“it’seasy...(a)llhe’sgoingtodoitgotosleep”ratherthanliveeverydaywithwhathedidandperhapsonedayrecognizethehumanityofhisvictim. JamesByrd’sson,Ross,pointsout"Youcan'tfightmurderwithmurder...(l)ifeinprisonwouldhavebeenfine.Iknowhecan'thurtmydaddyanymore.Iwishthestatewouldtakeinmindthatthisisn'twhatwewant." CAPITALPUNISHMENTCOSTSMORETHANINCARCERATIONItissometimessuggestedthatabolishingcapitalpunishmentisunfairtothetaxpayer,ontheassumptionthatlifeimprisonmentismoreexpensivethanexecution.Ifonetakesintoaccountalltherelevantcosts,however,justthereverseistrue."Thedeathpenaltyisnotnow,norhasiteverbeen,amoreeconomicalalternativetolifeimprisonment.")Amurdertrialnormallytakesmuchlongerwhenthedeathpenaltyisatissuethanwhenitisnot.Litigationcosts–includingthetimeofjudges,prosecutors,publicdefenders,andcourtreporters,andthehighcostsofbriefs–aremostlybornebythetaxpayer.Theextracostsofseparatedeathrowhousingandadditionalsecurityincourtandelsewherealsoaddtothecost. A1982studyshowedthatwerethedeathpenaltytobereintroducedinNewYork,thecostofthecapitaltrialalonewouldbemorethandoublethecostofalifeterminprison.(N.Y.StateDefendersAssn.,"CapitalLosses"1982)ThedeathpenaltywaseventuallyreintroducedinNewYorkandthenfoundunconstitutionalandnotreintroducedagain,inpartbecauseofcost.InMaryland,acomparisonofcapitaltrialcostswithandwithoutthedeathpenaltyfortheyearsconcludedthatadeathpenaltycasecosts"approximately42percentmorethanacaseresultinginanon-deathsentence."In1988and1989theKansaslegislaturevotedagainstreinstatingthedeathpenaltyafteritwasinformedthatreintroductionwouldinvolveafirst-yearcostofmorethan$11million.59 Florida,withoneofthenation'smostpopulousdeathrows,hasestimatedthatthetruecostofeachexecutionisapproximately$3.2million,orapproximatelysixtimesthecostofalife-imprisonmentsentence."(DavidvonDrehle,"CapitalPunishmentinParalysis,"MiamiHerald,July10,1988)A1993studyofthecostsofNorthCarolina'scapitalpunishmentsystemrevealedthatlitigatingamurdercasefromstarttofinishaddsanextra$163,000towhatitwouldcostthestatetokeeptheconvictedoffenderinprisonfor20years.Theextracostgoesupto$216,000percasewhenallfirst-degreemurdertrialsandtheirappealsareconsidered,manyofwhichdonotendwithadeathsentenceandanexecution.In2011inCalifornia,abroadcoalitionoforganizationscalledTaxpayersforJusticeputrepealofthedeathpenaltyontheballotfor2012inpartbecauseofthehighcostdocumentedbyarecentstudythatfoundthestatehasalreadyspent$4billiononcapitalpunishmentresultingin13executions.Thegroupincludesover100lawenforcementleaders,inadditiontocrime-victimadvocatesandexoneratedindividuals.AmongthemisformerLosAngelesCountyDistrictAttorneyGilGarcetti,whoseofficepursueddozensofcapitalcasesduringhis32yearsasaprosecutor.Hesaid,"Myfrustrationismoreaboutthefactthatthedeathpenaltydoesnotserveanyusefulpurposeandit'sveryexpensive." DonHeller,aRepublicanandformerprosecutor,wrote"Iamconvincedthatatleastoneinnocentpersonmayhavebeenexecutedunderthecurrentdeathpenaltylaw.ItwasnotmyintentnordoIbelievethatofthevoterswhooverwhelminglyenactedthedeathpenaltylawin1978.Wedidnotconsiderthathorrificpossibility."Helleremphasizedthatheisnot"softoncrime,"butthat"lifewithoutparoleprotectspublicsafetybetterthanadeathsentence."Additionally,hesaidthemoneyspentonthedeathpenaltycouldbebetterusedelsewhere,asCaliforniacutsfundingforpoliceofficersandprosecutors."Paradoxically,thecostofcapitalpunishmenttakesawayfundsthatcouldbeusedtoenhancepublicsafety."[34]Fromoneendofthecountrytotheotherpublicofficialsdecrytheadditionalcostofcapitalcasesevenwhentheysupportthedeathpenaltysystem."Whereverthedeathpenaltyisinplace,itsiphonsoffresourceswhichcouldbegoingtothefrontlineinthewaragainstcrime….Politicianscouldaddressthiscrisis,but,forthemostparttheyeitherendorseexecutionsorremainsilent."Theonlywaytomakethedeathpenaltymore"costeffective"thanimprisonmentistoweakendueprocessandcurtailappellatereview,whicharethedefendant's(andsociety's)onlyprotectionagainstthemostaberrantmiscarriagesofjustice.Anysavingsindollarswould,ofcourse,beatthecostofjustice:Innearlyhalfofthedeath-penaltycasesgivenreviewunderfederalhabeascorpusprovisions,themurderconvictionordeathsentencewasoverturned.In1996,inresponsetopublicclamorforacceleratingexecutions,Congressimposedsevererestrictionsonaccesstofederalhabeascorpusandalsoendedallfundingoftheregionaldeathpenalty"resourcecenters"chargedwithprovidingcounselonappealinthefederalcourts.(CarolCastenada,"DeathPenaltyCentersLosingSupportFunds,"USAToday,Oct.24,1995)Theserestrictionsvirtuallyguaranteethatthenumberandvarietyofwrongfulmurderconvictionsanddeathsentenceswillincrease.Thesavingsintimeandmoneywillprovetobeillusory. CAPITALPUNISHMENTISLESSPOPULARTHANTHEALTERNATIVESItiscommonlyreportedthattheAmericanpublicoverwhelminglyapprovesofthedeathpenalty.Morecarefulanalysisofpublicattitudes,however,revealsthatmostAmericanspreferanalternative;theywouldopposethedeathpenaltyifconvictedmurderersweresentencedtolifewithoutparoleandwererequiredtomakesomeformoffinancialrestitution.In2010,whenCaliforniavoterswereaskedwhichsentencetheypreferredforafirst-degreemurderer,42%ofregisteredvoterssaidtheypreferredlifewithoutparoleand41%saidtheypreferredthedeathpenalty.In2000,whenvoterswereaskedthesamequestion,37%choselifewithoutparolewhile44%chosethedeathpenalty. A1993nationwidesurveyrevealedthatalthough77%ofthepublicapprovesofthedeathpenalty,supportdropsto56%ifthealternativeispunishmentwithnoparoleeligibilityuntil25yearsinprison.Supportdropsevenfurther,to49%,ifthealternativeisnoparoleunderanyconditions.Andifthealternativeisnoparoleplusrestitution,itdropsstillfurther,to41%.OnlyaminorityoftheAmericanpublicwouldfavorthedeathpenaltyifofferedsuchalternatives. INTERNATIONALLY,CAPITALPUNISHMENTISWIDELYVIEWEDASINHUMANEANDANACHRONISTICAninternationalperspectiveonthedeathpenaltyhelpsusunderstandthepeculiarityofitsuseintheUnitedStates.Aslongagoas1962,itwasreportedtotheCouncilofEuropethat"thefactsclearlyshowthatthedeathpenaltyisregardedinEuropeassomethingofananachronism…."1962)Today,eitherbylaworinpractice,allofWesternEuropehasabolishedthedeathpenalty.InGreatBritain,itwasabolished(exceptforcasesoftreason)in1971;Franceabolisheditin1981.Canadaabolisheditin1976.TheUnitedNationsGeneralAssemblyaffirmedinaformalresolutionthatthroughouttheworld,itisdesirableto"progressivelyrestrictthenumberofoffensesforwhichthedeathpenaltymightbeimposed,withaviewtothedesirabilityofabolishingthispunishment."Bymid-1995,eighteencountrieshadratifiedtheSixthProtocoltotheEuropeanConventiononHumanRights,outlawingthedeathpenaltyinpeacetime.UnderscoringworldwidesupportforabolitionwastheactionoftheSouthAfricanconstitutionalcourtin1995,barringthedeathpenaltyasan"inhumane"punishment.Between1989and1995,twodozenothercountriesabolishedthedeathpenaltyforallcrimes. Since1995,43moreabolishedit. Alltold,71%oftheworld’snation’shaveabolishedthedeathpenaltyinlaworpractice;only58of197retainit.InternationalLawAlookatinternationaltrendsandagreementsshedslightonthepeculiarityoftheUnitedStates’continuedimpositionofcapitalpunishment.Today,over140nationshaveabolishedthedeathpenaltyeitherbylaworinpracticeand,ofthe58countriesthathaveretainedthedeathpenalty,only21carriedoutknownexecutionsin2011.[35] Furthermore,capitalpunishmenthascompelledtheUnitedStatestoabstainfromsigningorratifyingseveralmajorinternationaltreatiesandperhapstoviolateinternationalagreementstowhichitisaparty: In1989,theGeneralAssemblyadoptedtheSecondOptionalProtocoltotheInternationalCovenantonCivilandPoliticalRights(ICCPR),oneoftheUN’sprimaryhumanrightstreaties.[36] PartiestotheProtocolmusttakeallnecessarymeasurestoabolishthedeathpenaltyandprotecttheircitizens’rightnottobeexecuted,althoughsignatoriesmayreservetherighttoapplythedeathpenaltyforseriousmilitarycriminalsduringwartime.[37] TheUnitedStateshasyettojointhe35signatoriesor75partiestotheProtocol,trailingbehindtheworld’sleadingdemocraciesintheprotectionofhumanrights.AlthoughtheSecondProtocoltotheICCPRistheonlyworldwideinstrumentcallingfordeathpenaltyabolition,therearethreesuchinstrumentswithregionalemphases. AdoptedbytheCouncilofEuropein1982andratifiedbyeighteennationsbymid-1995,theSixthProtocoloftheEuropeanConventiononHumanRights(ECHR)providesfortheabolitionofcapitalpunishmentduringpeacetime. In2002,theCounciladoptedtheThirteenthProtocoltotheECHR,whichprovidesfortheabolitionofthedeathpenaltyinallcircumstances,includingtimesofwarorimminentthreatofwar.  In1990,theOrganizationofAmericanStatesadoptedtheProtocoltotheAmericanConventiononHumanRightstoAbolishtheDeathPenalty,whichprovidesfortotalabolitionbutallowsstatestoreservetherighttoapplythedeathpenaltyduringwartime.[38]TheUnitedStateshasratifiedtheViennaConventiononConsularRelations(VCCR),aninternationaltreatysettingforthaframeworkforconsularrelationsamongindependentcountries. UnderArticle36oftheVCCR,localauthoritiesareobligatedtoinformalldetainedforeigners“withoutdelay”oftheirrighttorequestconsularnotificationoftheirdetentionandtheirrighttodemandandaccessopportunitiestocommunicatewiththeirconsularrepresentatives.[39] Localauthoritieshaverepeatedlydisregardedthisobligation,resultingintheInternationalCourtofJusticeholdingin2004thatstateshadviolatedtheVCCRbyfailingtoinform51namedMexicannationalsoftheirrights. All51weresentencedtodeath. WhentheStateofTexasrefusedtohonorthisjudgmentandprovidereliefforthe15death-rowinmateswhoseVCCRrightsithadviolated,PresidentGeorgeW.Bushsoughttointerveneontheprisoners’behalf,takingthecasetotheUnitedStatesSupremeCourt.TheCourtdeniedthePresident’sappeal,andTexashasgoneontoexecuteinmateswhoseVCCRrightsithadfailedtohonor.In1994,theUnitedStatessignedtheUnitedNations(UN)ConventionAgainstTortureandOtherCruel,InhumanorDegradingTreatmentorPunishment(CAT).[40] Thetreaty,whichhasnowbeenratifiedorsignedby176nations,outlawstheimpositionofphysicalorpsychologicalabuseonpeopleindetention.Whileitdoesnotexplicitlyprohibitcapitalpunishment,thetreatydoesforbidtheintentionalinflictionofpain.Since1976,however,morethan20executionsintheUnitedStateshaveinvolvedprolonged,painful,orshockingerrors,suchasaninmate’sheadcatchingfireoralengthyandtorturoussearchforaveinsuitableforlethalinjection. Additionally,accidentsaside,ourmethodsofexecution—lethalinjection,electrocution,firingsquad,gaschamber,andhanging—maybeinherentlypainful. TheCATalsoforbidstheinflictionofpainandsuffering“basedondiscriminationofanykind,”[41]yetracialinequalityisendemictoourdeathrows. Alsoin1994,theUnitedStatesratifiedtheInternationalConventionontheEliminationofallformsofRacialDiscrimination(ICERD),atreatyintendedtoprotectagainstracialdiscrimination,whetherintentionalorresultingfromseeminglyneutralstatepolicies.TomeetitsobligationsasapartytoICERD,theUnitedStatesmusttakestepstoreviewandamendpoliciesandproceduresthatcreateorperpetuateracialdiscrimination,includingcapitalpunishment.[42]Onceinuseeverywhereandforawidevarietyofcrimes,thedeathpenaltytodayisgenerallyforbiddenbylawandwidelyabandonedinpractice,inmostcountriesoutsidetheUnitedStates.Indeed,theunmistakableworldwidetrendistowardthecompleteabolitionofcapitalpunishment.IntheUnitedStates,oppositiontothedeathpenaltyiswidespreadanddiverse.Catholic,Jewish,andProtestantreligiousgroupsareamongthemorethan50nationalorganizationsthatconstitutetheNationalCoalitiontoAbolishtheDeathPenalty.TheCaseAgainsttheDeathPenaltywasfirstpublishedbytheACLUasapamphletin1973. TheoriginaltextwaswrittenbyHugoAdamBedau,Ph.D.,whoalsocontributedtoseveralsubsequenteditionsofthepamphlet. ThisversionwasmostrecentlyrevisedbytheACLUin2012.[1]GlennL.Pierce&MichaelL.Radelet,DeathSentencinginEastBatonRougeParish,1990-2008,71La.L.Rev.647,671(2011),availableathttp://www.deathpenaltyinfo.org/documents/PierceRadeletStudy.pdf.[2]Liebmanet.al,LosTocayosCarlos,43Colum.Hum.Rts.L.Rev.711,1104(2012).[3]SeeAndrewCohen,Yes,America,WeHaveExecutedanInnocentMan,Atlantic,May14,2012,http://www.theatlantic.com/national/archive/2012/05/yes-america-we-have-executed-an-innocent-man/257106/.[4]Seeid.[5]Seeid.;CarlosDeLunaCase:TheFighttoProveanInnocentManWasExecuted,PBSNewshour,May24,2012,http://www.pbs.org/newshour/bb/law/jan-june12/deathpenalty_05-24.html.[6]AThree-DrugCocktail,WashingtonPost.com,Sep.26,2007,http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/graphic/2007/09/26/GR2007092600116.html;seealsoVictoriaGill,TheSearchforaHumaneWaytoKill,BBCNews,Aug.7,2012,http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/magazine-19060961.[7]SeeCarolJ.Williams,MakerofAnestheticUsedinExecutionsisDiscontinuingDrug,L.A.Times,Jan.22,2011,http://articles.latimes.com/2011/jan/22/local/la-me-execution-drug-20110122;JohnSchwartz,DeathPenaltyDrugRaisesLegalQuestions,N.Y.Times,Apr.13,2011,http://www.nytimes.com/2011/04/14/us/14lethal.html?pagewanted=all.[8]SeeBrandiGrissom,TexasWillChangeitsLethalInjectionProtocol,Tex.Tribune,July10,2012,www.texastribune.org/texas-dept-criminal-justice/death-penalty/texas-changing-its-lethal-injection-protocol/;RobStein,OhioExecutesInmateUsingNew,Single-DrugMethodforDeathPenalty,Wash.Post,Mar.11,2011,http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2011/03/10/AR2011031006250.html;DavidBeasley,GeorgiaDelaysExecutionAmidDrugProtocolChange,Reuters,July,17,2012,http://www.reuters.com/article/2012/07/17/us-usa-execution-georgia-idUSBRE86G14L20120717;RhondaCook&BillRankin,StateChangesLethalInjectionProtocol,ReschedulesExecution,AtlantaJournal-Constitution,July17,2012,http://www.ajc.com/news/atlanta/state-changes-lethal-injection-1479424.html;SteveEder, ATexasFirst:Single-DrugUsedtoExecuteInmate,WSJLawBlog,http://blogs.wsj.com/law/2012/07/19/a-texas-first-single-drug-used-to-execute-inmate/;IdahoSwitchesExecutionProtocoltoSingle-DrugLethalInjection,Spokesman.com,May18,2012,http://www.spokesman.com/blogs/boise/2012/may/18/idaho-switches-execution-protocol-single-drug-lethal-injection/.[9]SeeCarolJ.Williams,California’sNewLethalInjectionProtocolTossedByJudge,L.A.Times,Dec.17,2011, http://articles.latimes.com/2011/dec/17/local/la-me-executions-20111217;KathyLohr,NewLethalInjectionDrugRaisesConcerns,NPR,Jan.29,2011,http://www.npr.org/2011/01/29/133302950/new-lethal-injection-drug-raises-concerns;SteveEder,VirginiaAddsNewDrugforLethalInjections,WSJLawBlog,July27,2012,http://blogs.wsj.com/law/2012/07/27/virginia-adds-new-drug-for-lethal-injections/.[10]LauraVozzella,VirginiaoptsforOne-DrugLethalInjectionProtocol,Wash.Post,July27,2012,http://www.washingtonpost.com/local/dc-politics/virginia-opts-for-one-drug-lethal-injection-protocol/2012/07/27/gJQA8jxiEX_story.html.[11]SeeLindaGreenhouse,SupremeCourtAllowsLethalInjectionforExecution,N.Y.Times,Apr.17,2008,http://www.nytimes.com/2008/04/17/us/16cnd-scotus.html?pagewanted=all.[12]SeeMichaelKiefer,StateisSuedAgainOverItsLethal-InjectionProcedure,USAToday,Feb.7,2012,http://www.usatoday.com/USCP/PNI/Valley%20&%20State/2012-02-07-PNI0207met--executionsART_ST_U.htm;CourtGivesArizonaWarningAboutExecutionProtocol,AssociatedPress,Feb.28,2012,availableathttp://www.azcentral.com/community/pinal/articles/2012/02/28/20120228arizona-moorman-execution-death-row-inmate-lawyers-seek-stays.html. Notably,however,thepaneldidnothaltArizona’sscheduledexecutions.Id.[13]DavidBeasley,GeorgiaInmateGetsStayHoursBeforeScheduledExecution,Reuters,July23,2012,http://www.reuters.com/article/2012/07/23/us-usa-execution-georgia-idUSBRE86M1F720120723.[14]SteveEder,MissouriExecutionsonHoldAmidConcernsAboutNewDrug,Aug.15,2012,WSJLawBlog,http://blogs.wsj.com/law/2012/08/15/missouri-executions-on-hold-amid-concerns-about-new-drug/.[15]MelissaAnderson,ACLUChallengesMontana’sLethalInjectionProtocol,KXLH.com,Aug.1,2012,http://www.kxlh.com/news/aclu-challenges-montana-s-lethal-injection-protocol/.[16]SeeEder,supranote3;SteveOlfason,OklahomatoExecuteManWhoKilledEx-GirlfriendandHerTwoKids,ChicagoTribune,Aug.14,2012,http://articles.chicagotribune.com/2012-08-14/news/sns-rt-us-usa-execution-oklahomabre87d0s8-20120814_1_jerry-massie-method-of-lethal-injection-three-drug-protocol;SteveEder,OklahomaExecutionSetAfterLethalInjectionChallengeFails,Aug.13,2012,WSJLawBlog,http://blogs.wsj.com/law/2012/08/13/oklahoman-set-for-executution-after-lethal-injection-challenge-fails/.[17]SeeGrissom,supranote3;EdPilkington,TexasExecutionsThreatenedAsStocksofDeathPenaltyDrugRunLow,Guardian,Feb.14,2012,http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2012/feb/14/texas-executions-threatened-stocks-run-low;JohnSchwartz,SeekingExecutionDrug,StatesCutLegalCorners,N.Y.Times,Apr.13,2011, http://www.nytimes.com/2011/04/14/us/14lethal.html?pagewanted=all;Kiefer,supranote7.[18]EUImposesStrictControlson‘ExecutionDrug’Exports,BBCNews,Dec.20,2011,http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-16281016;MattMcGrath,FDAGoestoCourttoSecureDrugsforLethalInjections,BBCWorld,June1,2012,http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-18253578.[19]SeeJeremyPelofsky,U.S.WantsLawsuitOverExecutionDrugDismissed,Reuters,Apr.20,2011,http://www.reuters.com/article/2011/04/20/us-usa-execution-lawsuit-idUSTRE73J7MH20110420;MichaelKiefer,ExecutionDrugs:ArizonaInmateLawsuitSeeksFDAPolicing,Ariz.Republic,Feb.3,2011,http://www.azcentral.com/news/articles/2011/02/02/20110202arizona-execution-drug-fda-lawsuit-brk02-ON.html;KevinJohnson,LawsuitSeekstoBlockImportsofKeyExecutionDrug,USAToday,Feb.2,2011,http://content.usatoday.com/communities/ondeadline/post/2011/02/lawsuit-seeks-to-block-imports-of-key-execution-drug/1#.UA2pmKBCzGc;RyanGabrielson,LethalInjectionDrugTiedtoLondonWholesaler,CaliforniaWatch,Jan.7,2011,http://californiawatch.org/dailyreport/lethal-injection-drug-tied-london-wholesaler-7888;RyanGabrielson,CaliforniaLethalInjection:PrisonOfficialsRefusetoHandOverLethalInjectionDrug,CaliforniaWatch,May30,2012,availableathttp://www.huffingtonpost.com/2012/05/30/california-lethal-injection_n_1556155.html.[20]Pelofsky,supranote14.[21]SeeRaymondBonner,FDA’sImmoralStanceonLethalInjectionDrugs,Bloomberg,July29,2012,http://www.bloomberg.com/news/2012-07-29/fda-s-immoral-stance-on-lethal-injection-drugs.html.[22]SeeElizabethRapaport,AModestProposal:TheAgedofDeathRowShouldbeDeemedTooOldtoExecute,77Brook.L.Rev.1089(Spring2012); MichaelJ.Carter,WantingtoDie:TheCruelPhenomenonof“DeathRowSyndrome”,Alternet,Nov.7,2008,http://www.alternet.org/rights/106300/waiting_to_die%3A_the_cruel_phenomenon_of_%22death_row_syndrome%22/;Dr.KarenHarrisonandAnouskaTamony,DeathRowPhenomenon,DeathRowSyndrome,andTheirAffect[sic.]onCapitalCasesintheU.S.,InternetJournalofCriminology2010,availableathttp://www.internetjournalofcriminology.com/Harrison_Tamony_%20Death_Row_Syndrome%20_IJC_Nov_2010.pdf.[23]SeeStopSolitary–TheDangerousOveruseofSolitaryConfinementintheUnitedStates,ACLU.org,https://www.aclu.org/stop-solitary-dangerous-overuse-solitary-confinement-united-states-0.[24]SeeHarrisonandTamony,supranote25.[25]SeeCarter,supranote25;DeathPenaltyInformationCenter,TimeonDeathRow(2006),athttp://www.deathpenaltyinfo.org/time-death-row.[26]Seeid.[27]AmySmith,Not“Waiving”ButDrowning:TheAnatomyofDeathRowSyndromeandVolunteeringforExecution,17B.U.Pub.Int.L.J.237,243,availableathttp://www.bu.edu/law/central/jd/organizations/journals/pilj/vol17no2/documents/17-2SmithArticle.pdf.[28]Lackeyv.Texas,115S.Ct.1421,1421(1995)(Stevens,J.,concurringinthedenialofcertiorari).[29]StephenBlank,KillingTime:TheProcessofWaivingAppeal–TheMichaelRossDeathPenaltyCases,14J.L.&Pol’y735,738-39(2006).[30]Soeringv.UK,App.No.14038/88,11Eur.H.R.Rep.439(1989),availableathttp://eji.org/eji/files/Soering%20v.%20United%20Kingdom.pdf.[31]SeeDavidWallace-Wells,WhatisDeathRowSyndrome?,Slate,Feb.1,2005,http://www.slate.com/articles/news_and_politics/explainer/2005/02/what_is_death_row_syndrome.html;Smithsupranote30.[32]Smithsupranote30.(quotingSoering,11Eur.H.R.Rep.at475-76).[33]Id. at239.[34]CarolJ.Williams,DeathPenalty:ExhaustiveStudyFindsDeathPenaltyCostsCalifornia$184MillionaYear,L.A.Times,June20,2011,http://articles.latimes.com/2011/jun/20/local/la-me-adv-death-penalty-costs-20110620.[35]FiguresontheDeathPenalty,AmnestyInternational,http://www.amnesty.org/en/death-penalty/numbers.[36]UNGeneralAssembly,SecondOptionalProtocoltotheInternationalCovenantonCivilandPoliticalRights,AimingattheAbolitionoftheDeathPenalty,Dec.15,1989, A/RES/44/128, availableat:http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/docid/3ae6b3a70.html[accessed15August2012][hereinafterSecondOptionalProtocol].[37]SeePierreDesert,SecondOptionalProtocol:FrequentlyAskedQuestions,WorldCoalitionAgainsttheDeathPenalty,June27,2008,http://www.worldcoalition.org/Second-Optional-Protocol-Frequently-Asked-Questions.html;PierreDesert,SecondOptionalProtocol:TheOnlyGlobalTreatyAimingattheAbolitionoftheDeathPenalty,WorldCoalitionAgainsttheDeathPenalty,June24,2008,www.worldcoalition.org/UN-Protocol-the-only-global-treaty-aiming-at-the-abolition-of-the-death-penalty.html;SecondOptionalProtocol,supranote21. [38]Desert,SecondOptionalProtocol:FrequentlyAskedQuestions,supranote22. [39]ViennaConventiononConsularRelations,Mar.19,1967,596U.N.T.S.261,availableathttp://untreaty.un.org/ilc/texts/instruments/english/conventions/9_2_1963.pdf.[40]UnitedNationsConventionAgainstTortureandOtherCruel,InhumanorDegradingTreatmentorPunishment,Dec.10,1984,1465U.N.T.S.85,availableathttp://treaties.un.org/doc/publication/UNTS/Volume%201465/v1465.pdf.[41]RichardC.Dieter,Introduction:FordFoundationSymposium,Nov.12,1998,availableathttp://www.deathpenaltyinfo.org/us-death-penalty-and-international-law-us-compliance-torture-and-race-conventions.[42]InternationalConventionontheEliminationofAllFormsofRacialDiscrimination,Mar.7,1966,660U.N.T.S.195,availableathttp://treaties.un.org/doc/publication/UNTS/Volume%20660/v660.pdf.RelatedIssuesCapitalPunishmentStayInformedEmailAddress*ZIPCode*Leavethisfieldblank