Urban resilience - Wikipedia

Therefore, a resilient city is one that assesses, plans and acts to prepare for and respond to hazards - natural and human-made, sudden and slow-onset, expected ... Urbanresilience FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia Jumptonavigation Jumptosearch Abilityofacitytofunctionafteracrisis TunedmassdamperinTaipei101,theworld'sthirdtallestskyscraper Urbanresiliencehasconventionallybeendefinedasthe"measurableabilityofanyurbansystem,withitsinhabitants,tomaintaincontinuitythroughallshocksandstresses,whilepositivelyadaptingandtransformingtowardssustainability".[1]Therefore,aresilientcityisonethatassesses,plansandactstoprepareforandrespondtohazards-naturalandhuman-made,suddenandslow-onset,expectedandunexpected.ResilientCitiesarebetterpositionedtoprotectandenhancepeople'slives,securedevelopmentgains,fosteraninvestibleenvironment,anddrivepositivechange.[1]Academicdiscussionofurbanresiliencehasfocusedprimarilyonthreedistinctthreats;climatechange,naturaldisasters,andterrorism.[2][3]Resiliencetothesethreatshasbeendiscussedinthecontextofnon-physical,aswellas,physicalaspectsofurbanplanninganddesign.[4][5][6]Accordingly,resiliencestrategieshavetendedtobeconceivedofintermsofcounter-terrorism,otherdisasters(earthquakes,wildfires,tsunamis,coastalflooding,solarflares,etc.),andinfrastructureadoptionofsustainableenergy.[7] Morerecently,therehasbeenanincreasingattentiontogenealogiesofurbanresilience[8]andthecapabilityofurbansystemstoadapttochangingconditions.[9][10]Thisbranchofresiliencetheorybuildsonanotionofcitiesashighlycomplexadaptivesystems.Theimplicationofthisinsightistomoveurbanplanningawayfromconventionalapproachesbasedingeometricplanstoanapproachinformedbynetworksciencethatinvolveslessinterferenceinthefunctioningofcities.Networkscienceprovidesawayoflinkingcitysizetotheformsofnetworksthatarelikelytoenablecitiestofunctionindifferentways.Itcanfurtherprovideinsightsintothepotentialeffectivenessofvariousurbanpolicies.[11]Thisrequiresabetterunderstandingofthetypesofpracticesandtoolsthatcontributetobuildingurbanresilience.Genealogicalapproachesexploretheevolutionofthesepracticesovertime,includingthevaluesandpowerrelationsunderpinningthem. Buildingresilienceincitiesreliesoninvestmentdecisionsthatprioritizespendingonactivitiesthatofferalternatives,whichperformwellindifferentscenarios.Suchdecisionsneedtotakeintoaccountfuturerisksanduncertainties.Becauseriskcanneverbefullyeliminated,emergencyanddisasterplanningiscrucial.[12]Disasterriskmanagementframeworks,forexample,offerpracticalopportunitiesforenhancingresilience.[13] Morethanhalfoftheworld'shumanpopulationhaslivedincitiessince2007,andurbanizationiscalculatedtoriseto80%by2050.[14]Thismeansthatthemajorresiliencechallengesofourera,suchaspovertyreduction,naturalhazardsandclimatechange,environmentalsustainability,andsocialinclusion,willbewonorlostincities.Massdensityofpeoplemakesthemespeciallyvulnerablebothtotheimpactsofacutedisastersandtheslow,creepingeffectsofthechangingclimate;allmakingresilienceplanningcriticallyimportant.Atthesametime,growingurbanizationoverthepastcenturyhasbeenassociatedwithaconsiderableincreaseinurbansprawl.Resilienceeffortsaddresshowindividuals,communitiesandbusinessnotonlycopeonthefaceofmultipleshocksandstresses,butalsoexploitopportunitiesfortransformationaldevelopment. Asonewayofaddressingdisasterriskinurbanareas,nationalandlocalgovernments,oftensupportedbyinternationalfundingagencies,engageinresettlement.Thiscanbepreventative,oroccurafteradisaster.Whilethisreducespeople'sexposuretohazards,itcanalsoleadtootherproblems,whichcanleavepeoplemorevulnerableorworseoffthantheywerebefore.Resettlementneedstobeunderstoodaspartoflong-termsustainabledevelopment,notjustasameansfordisasterriskreduction.[15] Contents 1SustainableDevelopmentGoal11 2UN-Habitat'sCityResilienceProfilingTool(CRPT) 3MedellinCollaborationforUrbanResilience[19] 4100ResilientCitiesandtheCityResilienceIndex(CRI) 5Digitaltechnology,opendataandgovernanceforurbanresilience 6Climatechangeandurbanresilience 7Heatwavesanddroughts 7.1Urbanheatislands 7.2Socialfactorsforheatvulnerability 7.3Adaptingforheatanddroughtresilience 7.3.1Greening,reflectingandwhiteningurbanspaces 7.3.2Socialstrategies 7.3.3Foodandwatersupplies 8Flooding 8.1Floodflowinurbanenvironment 8.2Adaptingforfloodresilience 8.2.1Urbangreening 8.2.2Flood-watercontrol 8.2.3Structuralresilience 8.2.4Emergencyresponse 9Educationalprogramsrelatedtourbanresilience 10Seealso 11References SustainableDevelopmentGoal11[edit] Mainarticle:SustainableDevelopmentGoal11 InSeptember2015,worldleadersadoptedthe17SustainableDevelopmentGoals(SDGs)[16]aspartofthe2030AgendaforSustainableDevelopment.Thegoals,whichbuildonandreplacetheMillenniumDevelopmentGoals,[17]officiallycameintoforceon1January2016andareexpectedtobeachievedwithinthenext15years.WhiletheSDGsarenotlegallybinding,governmentsareexpectedtotakeownershipandestablishnationalframeworksfortheirachievement.Countriesalsohavetheprimaryresponsibilityforfollow-upandreviewofprogressbasedonquality,accessibleandtimelydatacollection.Nationalreviewswillfeedintoregionalreviews,whichinturnwillinformareviewatthegloballevel. UN-Habitat'sCityResilienceProfilingTool(CRPT)[edit] AstheUNAgencyforHumanSettlements,UN-HabitatisworkingtosupportlocalgovernmentsandtheirstakeholdersbuildurbanresiliencethroughtheCityResilienceProfilingTool(CRPT).Whenapplied,UN-Habitat'sholisticapproachtoincreasingresiliencyresultsinlocalgovernmentsthatarebetterabletoensurethewellbeingofcitizens,protectdevelopmentgainsandmaintainfunctionalityinthefaceofhazards.ThetooldevelopedbyUN-HabitattosupportlocalgovernmentsachieveresilienceistheCityResilienceProfilingTool.TheToolfollowsvariousstagesandUN-HabitatsupportscitiestomaximizetheimpactofCRPTimplementation. Gettingstarted LocalgovernmentsandUN-Habitatconnecttoevaluatetheneeds,opportunitiesandcontextofthecityandevaluatethepossibilityofimplementingthetoolintheircity.WIthourlocalgovernmentpartners,weconsiderthestakeholdersthatneedtobeinvolvedinimplementation,includingcivilsocietyorganizations,nationalgovernments,theprivatesectors,amongothers. Engagement BysigninganagreementwithaUNagency,thelocalgovernmentisbetterabletoworkwiththenecessarystakeholderstoplan-outriskandbuilt-inresilienceacrossthecity. Diagnosis TheCRPTprovidesaframeworkforcitiestocollecttherightdataaboutthecitythatenablesthemtoevaluatetheirresilienceandidentifypotentialvulnerabilityintheurbansystem.Diagnosisthroughdatacoversallelementsoftheurbansystem,andconsidersallpotentialhazardsandstakeholders. ResilienceActions Understandingoftheentireurbansystemfuelseffectiveaction.ThemainoutputoftheCRPTisauniqueResilienceActionPlan(RAP)foreachengagedcity.TheRAPsetsoutshort-,medium-andlong-termstrategiesbasedonthediagnosisandactionsareprioritised,assignedinterdepartmentally,andintegratedintoexistinggovernmentpoliciesandplans.Theprocessisiterativeandonceresilienceactionshavebeenimplemented,localgovernmentsmonitorimpactthroughthetool,whichrecalibratestoidentifynextsteps. Takingitfurther Resilienceactionsrequirethebuy-inofallstakeholdersand,inmanycases,additionalfunding.Withadetaileddiagnostic,localgovernmentscanleveragethesupportofnationalgovernments,donorsandotherinternationalorganizationstoworktowardssustainableurbandevelopment. Todate,thisapproachiscurrentlybeingadaptedinBarcelona(Spain),Asuncion(Paraguay),Maputo(Mozambique),PortVila(Vanuatu),Bristol(UnitedKingdom),Lisbon(Portugal),Yakutsk(Russia),andDakar(Senegal).Thebiennialpublication,TrendsinUrbanResilience,alsoproducedbyUN-Habitatistrackingthemostrecenteffortstobuildurbanresilienceaswellastheactorsbehindtheseactionsandanumberofcasestudies.[18] MedellinCollaborationforUrbanResilience[19][edit] TheMedellinCollaborationforUrbanResilience(MCUR)waslaunchedatthe7thsessionoftheWorldUrbanForuminMedellín,Colombiain2014.Asapioneeringpartnershipsplatforms,itgathersthemostprominentactorscommittedtobuildingresilienceglobally,includingUNISDR,TheWorldBankGroup,GlobalFacilityforDisasterReductionandRecovery,Inter-AmericanDevelopmentBank,RockefellerFoundation,100ResilientCities,C40,ICLEIandCitiesAlliance,anditischairedbyUN-Habitat. MCURaimstojointlycollaborateonstrengtheningtheresilienceofallcitiesandhumansettlementsaroundtheworldbysupportinglocal,regionalandnationalgovernments.Itaddressesitsactivitybyprovidingknowledgeandresearch,facilitatingaccesstolocal-levelfinanceandraisingglobalawarenessonurbanresiliencethroughpolicyadvocacyandadaptationdiplomacyefforts.Itsworkisdevotedtoachievingthemaininternationaldevelopmentagendas,asitworkstoachievethemandatessetoutintheSustainableDevelopmentGoals,theNewUrbanAgenda,theParisAgreementonClimateChangeandtheSendaiFrameworkforDisasterRiskReduction. TheMedellinCollaborationconceivedaplatformtohelplocalgovernmentsandothermunicipalprofessionalsunderstandtheprimaryutilityofthevastarrayoftoolsanddiagnosticsdesignedtoassess,measure,monitorandimprovecity-levelresilience.Forexample,sometoolsareintendedasrapidassessmentstoestablishageneralunderstandingandbaselineofacity'sresilienceandcanbeself-deployed,whileothersareintendedasameanstoidentifyandprioritiseareasforinvestment.TheCollaborationhasproducedaguidebooktoillustratehowcitiesarerespondingtocurrentandfuturechallengesbythinkingstrategicallyaboutdesign,planning,andmanagementforbuildingresilience.Currently,itisworkinginacollaborativemodelinsixpilotcities:Accra,Bogotá,Jakarta,Maputo,MexicoCityandNewYorkCity. 100ResilientCitiesandtheCityResilienceIndex(CRI)[edit] "UrbanResilienceisthecapacityofindividuals,communities,institutions,businesses,andsystemswithinacitytosurvive,adapt,andgrownomatterwhatkindsofchronicstressesandacuteshockstheyexperience."RockefellerFoundation,100ResilientCities. AcentralprogramcontributingtotheachievementofSDG11istheRockefellerFoundation's100ResilientCities.InDecember2013,TheRockefellerFoundationlaunchedthe100ResilientCitiesinitiative,whichisdedicatedtopromotingurbanresilience,definedas"thecapacityofindividuals,communities,institutions,businesses,andsystemswithinacitytosurvive,adapt,andgrownomatterwhatkindsofchronicstressesandacuteshockstheyexperience".[20]Therelatedresilienceframeworkismultidimensionalinnature,incorporatingthefourcoredimensionsofleadershipandstrategy,healthandwell-being,economyandsocietyandinfrastructureandenvironment.Eachdimensionisdefinedbythreeindividual"drivers"whichreflecttheactionscitiescantaketoimprovetheirresilience. Whilethevaguenessoftheterm"resilience"hasenabledinnovativemulti-disciplinarycollaboration,ithasalsomadeitdifficulttooperationalizeortodevelopgeneralizablemetrics.Toovercomethischallenge,theprofessionalservicesfirmAruphashelpedtheRockefellerFoundationdeveloptheCityResilienceIndexbasedonextensivestakeholderconsultationacrossarangeofcitiesglobally.Theindexisintendedtoserveasaplanninganddecision-makingtooltohelpguideurbaninvestmentstowardresultsthatfacilitatesustainableurbangrowthandthewell-beingofcitizens.Thehopeisthatcityofficialswillutilizethetooltoidentifyareasofimprovement,systemicweaknessesandopportunitiesformitigatingrisk.Itsgeneralizableformatalsoallowscitiestolearnfromeachother.[21] Theindexisaholisticarticulationofurbanresiliencepremisedonthefindingthatthereare12universalfactorsordriversthatcontributetocityresilience.Whatvariesistheirrelativeimportance.Thefactorsareorganizedintothefourcoredimensionsoftheurbanresilienceframework:[22] Leadershipandstrategy Effectiveleadershipandmanagement Empoweredstakeholders Integrateddevelopmentplanning Healthandwell-being Minimalhumanvulnerability Diverselivelihoodsandemployment Effectivesafeguardstohumanhealthandlife Economyandsociety Sustainableeconomy Comprehensivesecurityandruleoflaw Collectiveidentityandcommunitysupport Infrastructureandenvironment Reducedexposureandfragility Effectiveprovisionofcriticalservices Reliablemobilityandcommunications Atotalof100citiesacrosssixcontinentshavesignedupfortheRockefellerCenter'surbanresiliencechallenge.[1]All100citieshavedevelopedindividualCityResilienceStrategieswithtechnicalsupportfromaChiefResilienceOfficer(CRO).TheCROideallyreportsdirectlytothecity'schiefexecutiveandhelpscoordinatealltheresilienceeffortsinasinglecity. MedellininColombiaqualifiedfortheurbanresiliencechallengein2013.In2016,itwontheLeeKuanYewWorldCityPrize.[2] Digitaltechnology,opendataandgovernanceforurbanresilience[edit] Acorefactorenablingprogressonallotherdimensionsofurbanresilienceisurbangovernance.Sustainable,resilientandinclusivecitiesareoftentheoutcomeofgoodgovernancethatencompasseseffectiveleadership,inclusivecitizenparticipationandefficientfinancingamongotherthings.Tothisend,publicofficialsincreasinglyhaveaccesstopublicdata,enablingevidence-baseddecisionmaking.Opendataisalsoincreasinglytransformingthewaylocalgovernmentsshareinformationwithcitizens,deliverservicesandmonitorperformance.Itenablessimultaneouslyincreasedpublicaccesstoinformationandmoredirectcitizeninvolvementindecision-making.[23] Aspartoftheirresiliencestrategies,citygovernmentsareincreasinglyrelyingondigitaltechnologyaspartofacity'sinfrastructureandservicedeliverysystems.Ontheonehand,relianceontechnologiesandelectronicservicedeliveryhasmadecitiesmorevulnerabletohackingandcyberattacks.Atthesametime,informationtechnologieshaveoftenhadapositivetransformativeimpactbysupportinginnovationandpromotingefficienciesinurbaninfrastructure,thusleadingtolower-costcityservices.Thedeploymentofnewtechnologiesintheinitialconstructionofinfrastructurehaveinsomecasesevenallowedurbaneconomiestoleapfrogstagesofdevelopment.[23]Anunintendedoutcomeofthegrowingdigitalizationofcitiesistheemergenceofadigitaldivide,whichcanexacerbateinequalitybetweenwell-connectedaffluentneighborhoodsandbusinessdistricts,ontheonehand,andunder-servicedandunder-connectedlow-incomeneighborhoods,ontheother.Inresponse,anumberofcitieshaveintroduceddigitalinclusionprogramstoensurethatallcitizenshavethenecessarytoolstothriveinanincreasinglydigitalizedworld. Climatechangeandurbanresilience[edit] Theurbanimpactsofclimatechangevarywidelyacrossgeographicalanddevelopmentalscales.Arecentstudy[24]of616cities(hometo1.7billionpeople,withacombinedGDPofUS$35trillion,halfoftheworld'stotaleconomicoutput),foundthatfloodsendangermorecityresidentsthananyothernaturalperil,followedbyearthquakesandstorms.Belowisanattempttodefineanddiscussthechallengesofheatwaves,droughtsandflooding.Resilience-boostingstrategieswillbeintroducedandoutlined. Heatwavesanddroughts[edit] Heatwavesarebecomingincreasinglyprevalentastheglobalclimatechanges.The1980UnitedStatesheatwaveanddroughtkilled10,000people.In1988asimilarheatwaveanddroughtkilled17,000Americancitizens.[25]InAugust2003theUKsawrecordbreakingsummertemperatureswithaveragetemperaturespersistentlyrisingabove32 °C.Nearly3,000deathswerecontributedtotheheatwaveintheUKduringthisperiod,withanincreaseof42%inLondonalone.[26]Thisheatwaveclaimedmorethan40,000livesacrossEurope.[27]Researchindicatesthatby2040over50%ofsummerswillbewarmerthan2003andby2100thosesamesummertemperatureswillbeconsideredcool.[28]The2010northernhemispheresummerheatwavewasalsodisastrous,withnearly5,000deathsoccurringinMoscow.[29]Inadditiontodeaths,theseheatwavesalsocauseothersignificantproblems.Extendedperiodsofheatanddroughtsalsocausewidespreadcroplosses,spikesinelectricitydemand,forestfires,airpollutionandreducedbiodiversityinvitallandandmarineecosystems.[30]Agriculturallossesfromheatanddroughtmightnotoccurdirectlywithintheurbanarea,butitcertainlyaffectsthelivesofurbandwellers.Cropsupplyshortagescanleadtospikesinfoodprices,foodscarcity,civicunrestandevenstarvationinextremecases.Intermsofthedirectfatalitiesfromtheseheatwavesanddroughts,theyarestatisticallyconcentratedinurbanareas,[31]andthisisnotjustinlinewithincreasedpopulationdensities,butisduetosocialfactorsandtheurbanheatislandeffect. Urbanheatislands[edit] Urbanheatisland(UHI)referstothepresenceofaninner-citymicroclimateinwhichtemperaturesarecomparativelyhigherthanintheruralsurroundings.Recentstudieshaveshownthatsummerdaytimetemperaturescanreachupto10 °Chotterinacitycentrethaninruralareasandbetween5–6 °Cwarmeratnight.[32]ThecausesofUHIarenomystery,andaremostlybasedonsimpleenergybalancesandgeometrics.Thematerialscommonlyfoundinurbanareas(concreteandasphalt)absorbandstoreheatenergymuchmoreeffectivelythanthesurroundingnaturalenvironment.Theblackcolouringofasphaltsurfaces(roads,parkinglotsandhighways)isabletoabsorbsignificantlymoreelectromagneticradiation,furtherencouragingtherapidandeffectivecaptureandstorageofheatthroughouttheday.Geometricscomeintoplayaswell,astallbuildingsprovidelargesurfacesthatbothabsorbandreflectsunlightanditsheatenergyontootherabsorbentsurfaces.Thesetallbuildingsalsoblockthewind,whichlimitsconvectivecooling.Thesheersizeofthebuildingsalsoblockssurfaceheatfromnaturallyradiatingbackintothecoolskyatnight.[33]Thesefactors,combinedwiththeheatgeneratedfromvehicles,airconditionersandindustryensurethatcitiescreate,absorbandholdheatveryeffectively. Socialfactorsforheatvulnerability[edit] ThephysicalcausesofheatwavesanddroughtsandtheexacerbationoftheUHIeffectareonlypartoftheequationintermsoffatalities;socialfactorsplayaroleaswell.Statistically,seniorcitizensrepresentthemajorityofheat(andcold)relateddeathswithinurbanareas[34]andthisisoftenduetosocialisolation.Inruralareas,seniorsaremorelikelytolivewithfamilyorincarehomes,whereasincitiestheyareoftenconcentratedinsubsidisedapartmentbuildingsandinmanycaseshavelittletonocontactwiththeoutsideworld.[35]Likeotherurbandwellerswithlittleornoincome,mosturbanseniorsareunlikelytoownanairconditioner.Thiscombinationoffactorsleadstothousandsoftragicdeathseveryseason,andincidencesareincreasingeachyear.[36] Adaptingforheatanddroughtresilience[edit] Greening,reflectingandwhiteningurbanspaces[edit] Greeningurbanspacesisamongthemostfrequentlymentionedstrategiestoaddressheateffects.Theideaistoincreasetheamountofnaturalcoverwithinthecity.Thiscovercanbemadeupofgrasses,bushes,trees,vines,water,rockgardens;anynaturalmaterial.Coveringasmuchsurfaceaspossiblewithgreenspacewillbothreducethetotalquantityofthermallyabsorbentartificialmaterial,buttheshadingeffectwillreducetheamountoflightandheatthatreachestheconcreteandasphaltthatcannotbereplacedbygreenery.[37]Treesareamongthemosteffectivegreeningtoolwithinurbanenvironmentsbecauseoftheircoverage/footprintratio.Treesrequireaverysmallphysicalareaforplanting,butwhenmature,theyprovideamuchlargercoveragearea.Thisbothabsorbssolarenergyforphotosynthesis(improvingairqualityandmitigatingglobalwarming),reducingtheamountofenergybeingtrappedandheldwithinartificialsurfaces,butalsocastsmuch-neededshadeonthecityanditsinhabitants.Shadeitselfdoesnotlowertheambientairtemperature,butitgreatlyreducestheperceivedtemperatureandcomfortofthoseseekingitsrefuge.[38]ApopularmethodofreducingUHIissimplyincreasingthealbedo(lightreflectiveness)ofurbansurfacesthatcannotbe‘greened’.Thisisdonebyusingreflectivepaintsormaterialswhereappropriate,orwhiteandlight-colouredoptionswherereflectionswouldbedistractingordangerous.Glazingcanalsobeaddedtowindowstoreducetheamountofheatenteringbuildings.[39]Greenroofsarealsoaresilience-boostingoption,andhavesynergieswithfloodresiliencestrategiesaswell.However,depavingofexcesspavementhasbeenfoundtobeamoreeffectiveandcost-efficientapproachtogreeningandfloodcontrol. Socialstrategies[edit] Therearevariousstrategiestoincreasetheresilienceofthosemostvulnerabletourbanheatwaves.Asestablished,thesevulnerablecitizensareprimarilysociallyisolatedseniors.Othervulnerablegroupsincludeyoungchildren(especiallythosefacingabjectpovertyorlivingininformalhousing),peoplewithunderlyinghealthproblems,theinfirmordisabledandthehomeless.Accurateandearlypredictionofheatwavesisoffundamentalimportance,asitgivestimeforthegovernmenttoissueextremeheatalerts.Urbanareasmustprepareandbereadytoimplementheat-waveemergencyresponseinitiatives.Seasonalcampaignsaimedtoeducatethepublicontherisksassociatedwithheatwaveswillhelppreparethebroadcommunity,butinresponsetoimpendingheateventsmoredirectactionisrequired.[40]Localgovernmentmustquicklycommunicatewiththegroupsandinstitutionsthatworkwithheat-vulnerablepopulations.Coolingcentresshouldbeopenedinlibraries,communitycentresandgovernmentbuildings.Thesecentresensurefreeaccesstoairconditioningandwater.Inpartnershipwithgovernmentandnon-governmentsocialservices,paramedics,police,firefighters,nursesandvolunteers;theabove-mentionedgroupsworkingwithvulnerablepopulationsshouldcarryoutregulardoor-to-doorvisitsduringtheseextremeheatscenarios.Thesevisitsshouldprovideriskassessment,advice,bottledwater(forareaswithoutpotabletapwater)andtheofferoffreetransportationtolocalcoolingcentres.[41] Foodandwatersupplies[edit] Seealso:WaterscarcityandEffectsofclimatechangeonagriculture Heatwavesanddroughtscanreapmassivedamageonagriculturalareasvitaltoprovidingfoodstaplestourbanpopulations.Reservoirsandaquifersquicklydryupduetoincreaseddemandonwaterfordrinking,industrialandagriculturalpurposes.Theresultcanbeshortagesandpricespikesforfoodandwithincreasingfrequency,shortagesofdrinkingwaterasobservedwithincreasingseverityseasonallyinChina[42]andthroughoutmostofthedevelopingworld.[43]Fromanagriculturalstandpoint,farmerscanberequiredtoplantmoreheatanddrought-resistantcrops.Agriculturalpracticescanalsobestreamlinedtohigherlevelsofhydrologicalefficiency.Reservoirsshouldbeexpandedandnewreservoirsandwatertowersshouldbeconstructedinareasfacingcriticalshortages.[44]Granderschemesofdammingandredirectingriversshouldalsobeconsideredifpossible.Forsaltwatercoastalcities,desalinationplantsprovideapossiblesolutiontowatershortages.Infrastructurealsoplaysaroleinresilience,asinmanyareasagingpipelinesresultinleakageandpossiblecontaminationofdrinkingwater.InKenya’smajorcities,NairobiandMombasa,between40and50%ofdrinkingwaterislostthroughleakage.[45]Inthesetypesofcases,replacementsandrepairsareclearlyneeded. Flooding[edit] Flooding,eitherfromweatherevents,risingsealevelsorinfrastructurefailuresareamajorcauseofdeath,diseaseandeconomiclossesthroughouttheworld.Climatechangeandrapidlyexpandingurbansettlementsaretwofactorsthatareleadingtotheincreasingoccurrenceandseverityofurbanfloodevents,especiallyinthedevelopingworld.[46][47][48]Stormsurgescanaffectcoastalcitiesandarecausedbylowpressureweathersystems,likecyclonesandhurricanes.[49]Flashfloodsandriverfloodscanaffectanycitywithinafloodplainorwithinadequatedrainageinfrastructure.Thesecanbecausedbylargequantitiesofrainorheavyrapidsnowmelt.Withallformsofflooding,citiesareincreasinglyvulnerablebecauseofthelargequantityofpavedandconcretesurfaces.Theseimpermeablesurfacescausemassiveamountsofrunoffandcanquicklyoverwhelmthelimitedinfrastructureofstormdrains,floodcanalsandintentionalfloodplains.Manycitiesinthedevelopingworldsimplyhavenoinfrastructuretoredirectfloodwaterswhatsoever.[50]Aroundtheworld,floodskillthousandsofpeopleeveryyearandareresponsibleforbillionsofdollarsindamagesandeconomiclosses.[51]Flooding,muchlikeheatwavesanddroughts,canalsowreakhavoconagriculturalareas,quicklydestroyinglargeamountsofcrops.Incitieswithpoororabsentdrainageinfrastructure,floodingcanalsoleadtothecontaminationofdrinkingwatersources(aquifers,wells,inlandwaterways)withsaltwater,chemicalpollution,andmostfrequently,viralandbacterialcontaminants.[52] Floodflowinurbanenvironment[edit] Thefloodflowinurbanisedareasconstitutesahazardtothepopulationandinfrastructure.SomerecentcatastrophesincludedtheinundationsofNîmes(France)in1998andVaison-la-Romaine(France)in1992,thefloodingofNewOrleans(USA)in2005,thefloodinginRockhampton,Bundaberg,Brisbaneduringthe2010–2011summerinQueensland(Australia).Floodflowsinurbanenvironmentshavebeenstudiedrelativelyrecentlydespitemanycenturiesoffloodevents.[50]Someresearchersmentionedthestorageeffectinurbanareas.Severalstudieslookedintotheflowpatternsandredistributioninstreetsduringstormeventsandtheimplicationintermsoffloodmodelling.[53] Someresearchconsideredthecriteriaforsafeevacuationofindividualsinfloodedareas.[54]Butsomerecentfieldmeasurementsduringthe2010–2011Queenslandfloodsshowedthatanycriterionsolelybasedupontheflowvelocity,waterdepthorspecificmomentumcannotaccountforthehazardscausedbythevelocityandwaterdepthfluctuations.[50]Theseconsiderationsignorefurthertherisksassociatedwithlargedebrisentrainedbytheflowmotion.[54] Adaptingforfloodresilience[edit] Urbangreening[edit] Replacingasmanynon-poroussurfaceswithgreenspaceaspossiblewillcreatemoreareasfornaturalground(andplant-based)absorptionofexcesswater.[55]Gainingpopularityaredifferenttypesofgreenroofs.Greenroofsvaryintheirintensity,fromverythinlayersofsoilorrockwoolsupportingavarietyofloworno-maintenancemossesorsedumspeciestolarge,deep,intensiveroofgardenscapableofsupportinglargeplantsandtreesbutrequiringregularmaintenanceandmorestructuralsupport.[56]Thedeeperthesoil,themorerainwateritcanabsorbandthereforethemorepotentialfloodwateritcanpreventfromreachingtheground.Oneofthebeststrategies,ifpossible,istosimplycreateenoughspacefortheexcesswater.Thisinvolvesplanningorexpandingareasofparklandinoradjacenttothezonewherefloodingismostlikelytooccur.Excesswaterisdivertedintotheseareaswhennecessary,asinCardiff,aroundthenewMillenniumStadium.[57]Floodplainclearanceisanothergreeningstrategythatfundamentallyremovesstructuresandpavementbuiltonfloodplainsandreturnsthemtotheirnaturalhabitatwhichiscapableofabsorbingmassivequantitiesofwaterthatotherwisewouldhavefloodedthebuilturbanarea.[52] Flood-watercontrol[edit] Leveesandotherfloodbarriersareindispensableforcitiesonfloodplainsoralongriversandcoasts.Inareaswithlowerfinancialandengineeringcapital,therearecheaperandsimpleroptionsforfloodbarriers.UKengineersarecurrentlyconductingfieldtestsofanewtechnologycalledtheSELOC(Self-ErectingLow-CostBarrier).Thebarrieritselfliesflatontheground,andasthewaterrises,theSELOCfloatsup,withitstopedgerisingwiththewaterlevel.Arestraintholdsthebarrierintheverticalposition.Thissimple,inexpensivefloodbarrierhasgreatpotentialforincreasingurbanresiliencetofloodevents[57]andshowssignificantpromisefordevelopingnationswithitslowcostandsimple,fool-proofdesign.Thecreationorexpansionoffloodcanalsand/ordrainagebasinscanhelpdirectexcesswaterawayfromcriticalareas[58]andtheutilisationofinnovativeporouspavingmaterialsoncitystreetsandcarparksallowfortheabsorptionandfiltrationofexcesswater.[39] DuringtheJanuary2011floodoftheBrisbaneRiver(Australia),someuniquefieldmeasurementsaboutthepeakofthefloodshowedverysubstantialsedimentfluxesintheBrisbaneRiverfloodplain,consistentwiththemurkyappearanceoffloodwaters.[59][60]ThefielddeploymentinaninundatedstreetoftheCBDshowedalsosomeunusualfeaturesoffloodflowinanurbanenvironmentlinkedwithsomelocaltopographiceffects. Structuralresilience[edit] Inmostdevelopednations,allnewdevelopmentsareassessedforfloodrisks.Theaimistoensurefloodriskistakenintoaccountinallstagesoftheplanningprocesstoavoidinappropriatedevelopmentinareasofhighrisk.Whendevelopmentisrequiredinareasofhighrisk,structuresshouldbebuilttoflood-resistantstandardsandlivingorworkingareasshouldberaisedwellabovetheworst-casescenariofloodlevels.Forexistingstructuresinhigh-riskareas,fundingshouldbeallocatedtoi.e.raisetheelectricalwiring/socketssoanywaterthatentersthehomecannotreachtheelectrics.Othersolutionsaretoraisethesestructurestoappropriateheights[61]ormakethemfloating[62]orconsiderationsshouldbemadetorelocateorrebuildstructuresonhigherground.AhouseinMexicoBeach,FloridawhichsurvivedHurricaneMichaelisanexampleofahousebuilttosurvivetidalsurge.[63] Thepre-IncanUrupeopleofLakeTiticacainPeruhavelivedonfloatingislandsmadeofreedsforhundredsofyears.Thepracticebeganasaninnovativeformofprotectionfromcompetitionforlandbyvariousgroups,anditcontinuestosupporttheUruhomeland.Themanualtechniqueisusedtobuildhomesrestingonhand-madeislands[64]allfromsimplereedsfromthetotoraplant.Similarly,inthesouthernwetlandsofIraq,theMarshArabs(Arabal-Ahwār)havelivedforcenturiesonfloatingislandsandinarchedbuildings[65]allconstructedexclusivelyfromthelocalqasabreeds.Withoutanynails,wood,orglass,buildingsareassembledbyhandasquicklyaswithinaday.Anotheraspectofthesevillages,calledAlTahla,isthatthebuilthomescanalsobedisassembledinaday,transported,andreassembled[3]. Emergencyresponse[edit] Aswithalldisasters,floodingrequiresaspecificsetofdisasterresponseplans.Variouslevelsofcontingencyplanningshouldbeestablished,frombasicmedicalandselectiveevacuationprovisionsinvolvinglocalemergencyrespondersrightthewayuptofullmilitarydisasterreliefplansinvolvingair-basedevacuations,searchandrescueteamsandrelocationprovisionsforentireurbanpopulations.Clearlinesofresponsibilityandchainsofcommandmustbelaidout,andtieredpriorityresponselevelsshouldbeestablishedtoaddresstheimmediateneedsofthemostvulnerablecitizensfirst.Forpost-floodingrepairandreconstructionsufficientemergencyfundingshouldbesetasideproactively.[66] Educationalprogramsrelatedtourbanresilience[edit] Theemergenceofurbanresilienceasaneducationaltopichasexperiencedanunprecedentedlevelofgrowthdueinlargeparttoaseriesofnaturaldisastersincludingthe2004IndianOceanearthquakeandtsunami,2005HurricaneKatrina,the2011Tohokuearthquakeandtsunami,andHurricaneSandyin2012.Twoofthemorewell-recognizedprogramsareHarvardGraduateSchoolofDesign'sMaster'sprograminRiskandResilience,andTulaneUniversity'sDisasterResilienceLeadershipAcademy.TherearealsoseveralworkshopsavailablerelatedtotheU.S.FederalEmergencyManagementAgencyandtheDepartmentofHomelandSecurity.Alistofmorethan50currentgraduateandundergraduateprogramsfocusingonurbanresiliencehasbeencompiledbyTheResilienceShift. 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